Ut res magis valeat quam pereat

Legal Maxim

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February 24, 2024

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Table of Contents

LITERAL MEANING:

Let the thing be more valued than it perishes.
It is better for a thing to have effect than to be made it void.

ORIGIN:

Latin

EXPLANATION:

Sir George Farwell said, “Unless the words were so senseless that I could do nothing with them, I should be bound to find some meaning, and not declare them void for uncertainty.”

It is an important rule in interpreting any statute to interpret it in such a manner to ensure that the intent of the legislation is achieved. If it appears that there is any uncertainty or ambiguity in a statute or provision, it should be interpreted in such a manner that the provision or statute is not rendered ineffective.
In layman’s terms, ut res magis valeat quam pereat means that when interpreting legal provisions or statutes, the judiciary is responsible for giving meaning to or interpreting the statute or provision in such a manner that the intention of the legislative body behind the formation of such law is ascertained and the law that is formed does not render ineffective or futile. A statute should not be declared void solely because of its vagueness.

The survival of the law is the most important requirement. An interpretation that renders any provision unworkable or inoperable would be contrary to the intent of the legislature. The legislature alone has the authority to enact and amend laws; the courts are responsible for interpreting the law. Any interpretation that renders a statute or provision meaningless under these circumstances amounts to a rejection of the law, and courts have no jurisdiction over that.

CASE LAWS:

Ravindra Babu Shriwas and Ors. vs. State of U.P. and Ors.- “A statute must be construed as a workable instrument. “Ut-res-magis-valet-quam-pereat” is a well-known principle of law and on this principle the provision of a statute must be construed as to make it effective and operative. The Courts will reject that construction which will defeat the plain intention of the legislature even though, there may be some in exactitude in the language used. Reducing the legislation to futility shall be avoided and in case where the intention of the legislature cannot be given effect to, the Court should accept the bolder construction for the purposes of bringing about an effective result.”
Avtar Singh v. State of Punjab– In this case, the question arose regarding the interpretation of Section 39 of the Electricity Act, 1910. The appellant was convicted for theft of electricity from the Punjab State Electricity Board under Section 39 of the Electricity Act and the respondent proceeded against him under Section 379 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860. In the appeal filed by the appellant, he did not challenge the finding that he had committed the theft but only raised a question of law that his conviction was illegal in view of certain statutory provisions. The Supreme Court ruled that since the offence was related to the Electricity Act and not the Indian Penal Code, the procedure outlined in Section 50 must have been adhered to. Consequently, the appellant’s conviction was overturned. In this case, the Court applied the doctrine of ‘ut res magis valeat quam pereat,’ ensuring that the interpretation adopted did not render Section 50 ineffective and pointless.
Sankar Ram and Co. v. Kasi Naicker– the Supreme Court established a presumption that legislative intent is to give effect to every part of a statute. It is a fundamental rule of interpretation that no word or provision should be considered redundant or unnecessary unless there are compelling reasons to do so based on the statute’s scheme and objectives, i.e. application of doctrine of ut res magis valeat quam pereat.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
How To Send A Legal Notice In India

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Class Notes

Shreya Sharma

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February 18, 2024

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The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 is a legislative enactment of the Indian Parliament that aims to regulate marriages among Hindus and those who have converted to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, or Sikhism. The act seeks to codify and unify the diverse marriage laws prevalent among Hindus and provide legal mechanisms for solemnizing and dissolving marriages.

Contents

The key provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 include:

1. Applicability: The act applies to individuals who practice Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

2. Solemnization of Marriage: The act lays down the conditions for a valid Hindu marriage, including eligibility criteria, ceremonies, and registration requirements.

3. Conditions for Marriage: The act specifies conditions such as the minimum age of marriage, mental capacity, prohibited relationships, monogamy, and more.

4. Void and Voidable Marriage: The act distinguishes between void marriages (those that are unlawful from the beginning) and voidable marriages (those that are valid until annulled by a court).

5. Restitution of Conjugal Rights: The act provides provisions for the restitution of conjugal rights, enabling a spouse to petition the court for the resumption of marital cohabitation.

6. Judicial Separation: Couples can seek judicial separation under certain circumstances, which does not dissolve the marriage but allows them to live separately.

7. Divorce: The act outlines grounds for divorce, including adultery, cruelty, desertion, conversion to another religion, and more. Divorce can be sought through mutual consent or contested through the courts.

8. Maintenance and Alimony: The act makes provisions for the maintenance of spouses and children in case of divorce or separation.

9. Custody of Children: The act addresses the custody and guardianship of children in case of divorce or separation.

10. Ancillary Matters: The act deals with matters such as property rights, succession, and inheritance concerning Hindu marriages.

11. Special Marriage Act: The act provides an alternative to the Hindu Marriage Act for interfaith marriages, allowing Hindus to marry outside their religion through the Special Marriage Act, 1954.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, has been amended several times to address societal changes and legal developments. It is a significant piece of legislation governing Hindu marriages in India, providing a framework for personal relationships, rights, and obligations within the Hindu community.

ESSENTIALS OF HINDU MARRIAGE

In Hinduism, marriage is considered one of the most important and sacred rituals. It is the last of the ten sacraments in the religion, which is necessary for the regeneration of individuals who do not wish to become sanyasis. A fundamental prerequisite for a Hindu marriage is that both individuals involved in the ceremony must be Hindu.

The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 has defined specific conditions that must be fulfilled for a marriage to be considered valid. These conditions are listed under Section 5 of the Act. However, in the case of Lila Gupta vs Laxmi Narain & others, the Supreme Court held that not all of the conditions outlined in Section 5 of the Act are mandatory. It is important to note that the decision from the court granted some flexibility in the interpretation and implementation of the Act’s requirements, allowing for a more nuanced approach to Hindu marriages.

CONDITION FOR A VALID HINDU MARRIAGE

1. MONOGAMY

Section 5 (i) of the act prohibits polygamy and polyandry. It says that neither party should have a living spouse at the time of the marriage. Failure of this condition would null and void the marriage under sec 11 of the act. Apart from this, the party would be liable for bigamy under sec 494 and 495 of the IPC

In cases like BHOGADI KANNABABU vs VUGGINA PYDAMA & others and YAMUNA ANANTRAO ADHAV A vs RANATRAO SHIVRAO ADHAV & ANR, the apex court held that during the subsistence of the first marriage, the 2nd marriage is NULL and VOID.

2. The conditions are

Under Section 5 (ii), at the time of the marriage neither party

(a) Is incapable of giving a valid consent due to his/her unsound mind.

(b) has been suffering from a mental disorder of such kind or to such an extent as to be unfit for marriage and the procreation of children.

(c) has been subjected to recurrent attacks of insanity.

If any of these conditions are not fulfilled then marriage is voidable under sec 12 (1)(b) of the act. In Smt. ALKA SHARMA vs ABHINESH CHANDRA SHARMA, the high court of Madhya Pradesh held that the court can nullify the marriage if either condition or both conditions are fulfilled due to the mental disorder of the party.

3. Age of the parties

Under Section 5 (iii) of the act, the bridegroom and bride have completed the age of 21 at the time of the marriage. Breaching of the condition did not amount to the nullity of the marriage but it is an offense under Section 18 (a) of the act i.e. Simple imprisonment up to 2 years or a fine of Rs 1000/- or both

4. Prohibited degree of relation

Under Section 5 (iv) of the act prohibits the solemnization of marriage of persons falling within the prohibited degree of relationship. If any marriage is solemnized under this then the marriage would be void under Section 11 of the act. Apart from this, violation of this clause would amount to simple imprisonment up to 1 month or a fine of 1000/- or both under Section 18 (b) of the act.

5. Prohibition of Sapinda Relationship

Under Section 5 (v) of the act, marriage between the persons having sapinda relationship is prohibited unless there is a custom that allows them to do so. Sapinda means a person considered in relation to any of his or her three of sometimes six nearest lineal male ancestors or descendants. Any marriage solemnized under this would be void under section 11 of the act and violation of this clause would amount to simple imprisonment up to 1 month or a fine of 1000/- or both under sec18 (b) of the act.

LANDMARK CASE

SHREE JITENDRA KUMAR SHARMA vs STATE

In this case, the marriage took place between two minor parties who had fallen in love and eloped after their marriage. The girl’s father contended before the court that the marriage between his daughter and the petitioner, Jitendra Kumar was invalid as it violated section sec 5 (iii) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Judgment- The court while pointing out that section 5 (iii)is neither ground for a void marriage nor a voidable marriage, opined that the minor couple is free to live together without any compulsion from the respective families.

Conclusion

The Hindu Marriage Act, enacted in 1955, is a crucial legislation in India that brings together various customs and traditions governing Hindu marriages into a comprehensive legal framework. The act recognizes that Hindu marriage is not just a private affair but also a social institution, and hence, it seeks to provide legal clarity and protection to individuals who are entering into Hindu marriages.

The act covers various aspects of Hindu marriage, including the solemnization of marriages, the rights and responsibilities of spouses, the grounds for dissolving the marriage, and matters related to maintenance, custody, and inheritance. It lays down the conditions for a valid Hindu marriage, such as the eligibility of parties to marry, the age of marriage, and the prohibition of certain degrees of relationship.

Moreover, the act recognizes the importance of gender equality and grants equal rights to both spouses in the marriage. It provides for the right to maintenance of the spouse, the right to custody of children, and the right to inherit the property of the spouse in case of death. The act also provides for the dissolution of the marriage on certain grounds such as cruelty, adultery, and desertion.

The Hindu Marriage Act has evolved to adapt to changing societal norms and needs, while still preserving the fundamental principles of Hindu marriage. It has undergone several amendments to address the concerns of different sections of society, such as the amendment in 1986 that made the act applicable to all Hindus, including Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.

In conclusion, the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, has played a crucial role in providing legal clarity and protection to individuals who are entering into Hindu marriages. With its emphasis on both personal freedoms and societal stability, the act continues to serve as a cornerstone of family law in India, shaping the landscape of marital relationships within the Hindu community.

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Difference between kidnapping and abduction

Analysis

Kritika Bhusari

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February 14, 2024

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Difference between kidnapping and abduction

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Abduction and Kidnapping are particular types of offences under the Indian Penal Code. It talks about the forcefully taking of a person or a child (from guardianship) with or without consent for that matter. Both offences are given under Chapter 26 – Offences affecting the Human Body. They are defined under sections 359-362 and the punishments for the same are mentioned under sections 363-366 and 367-369 wherein the punishments differ with respect to the purpose for the kidnapping or abduction is committed.

Abduction is a broader concept than kidnapping, it can also be said that all kidnappings are abductions whereas all abductions are not kidnappings. In other terms, abduction is genus while kidnapping is its species. We will get a deeper understanding towards this in the article.

KIDNAPPING

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, kidnapping means, “to seize and detain or carry away by unlawful force or fraud and often with a demand for ransom”. The literal meaning of kidnapping is “child stealing” and it has been given a wider meaning than its literal meaning.

Under the Indian Penal Code, 1860 (hereinafter referred to as ‘the act’), kidnapping has been defined under section 359. According to section 359 of The Act, there are two kinds of kidnapping- kidnapping from India and kidnapping from legal guardianship.

Kidnapping from India is defined under section 360 of The Act. It means stealing away and conveying any person from their own country (India), and sending them into another beyond the limits of (India), without their or their legal guardian’s consent. This section is attractive only when the person is conveyed beyond the limits of the country.

Illustration- Person ‘X’ who lives in Mumbai, Maharashtra is taken by person ‘Y’ to Malaysia forcefully without consent.

Essential elements-

Conveyance of the person beyond the limits of India.
Absence of consent of the person himself or of the person authorised.

Kidnapping from lawful guardianship is defined under section 361 of The Act. It states that taking or enticing any minor (under 16 years of age if male and under 18 years of age if female) or a person of unsound mind out of the keeping of a lawful guardian without the guardian’s consent constitutes kidnapping. Here ‘lawful guardian’ could be any person who is legally entrusted with the custody of a minor or any person of unsound mind.

The moment a minor or someone who is insane is truly removed from legal guardianship, the offence under this section is considered to have been committed. Furthermore, it is entirely irrelevant whether or not the minor in such a scenario has given their consent to this offence. This section provides an exception in which a person who, acting in good faith and believing himself to be the father of an illegitimate child or to be entitled to the child’s custody, removes the child from the legal guardianship without the child’s consent and does so for no immoral or illegal reason, is released from liability.

Case Law- State Of Haryana V. Raja Ram

The accused in this instance attempted to entice the 14-year-old prosecutrix to move in with him. Even after her father had forbidden her from going, the girl went. According to the ruling of the Supreme Court, a child’s consent is entirely irrelevant and should only be considered when determining whether or not an offence was committed. The definition of “taking” in this section includes both coercion by the accused and fraud, as well as the minor’s willingness to be removed from his or her legal guardian. The accused was held guilty as it was because of his enticing behaviour that the girl left her father’s custody.

Essential elements-

Taking or enticing a person.
The person should be a minor or of unsound mind.
Taking the person from the lawful guardian.
Absence of consent from a lawful guardian.

ABDUCTION

Abduction has been defined under section 362 of the Act. It states that, when any person is forcefully compelled or induced in a deceitful manner to go from one place to another, such act is said to be abduction.

The crime of abduction requires the use of force or coercion. This means that a person will not face charges of abduction if a person chooses to go out with them voluntarily and without coercion or force. The term “deceitful means” will encompass not only fraud and misrepresentation but also the act of kidnapping someone under false pretences.

Case Law- Bahadur Ali Khan v. King Emperor

In this case, the accused misrepresented himself as a police constable and constrained the girl in his house in exchange for a ransom of Rs. 600. It was held by the court that this act amounted to abduction and the accused was held guilty.

Essential elements-

- Compelling a person using forceful means or inducing in a deceitful manner.
- Compelling the person to go from one place to another.
- Intention to commit an offence against them.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ABDUCTION AND KIDNAPPING

The difference between abduction and kidnapping can be understood with reference to the following points:

Age of the aggrieved person

Kidnapping: Kidnapping is a crime that is committed against a minor, who is 16 years old for males and 18 years old for females.

Abduction: The law does not take age into account when it comes to abductions; anyone can use force or fraudulent means to compel someone else to move from one place to another.

Lawful Guardianship

Kidnapping: here the person kidnapped is removed from the custody of his/her lawful guardian.

Abduction: consent or custody of lawful guardian is immaterial.

Means

Kidnapping: the person is taken away from the custody of the lawful guardian immaterial of the guardianship.

Abduction: the means used for abduction maybe force, compulsion or deceit.

Consent

Kidnapping: the consent of the kidnapped is immaterial whereas consent of the legal guardian is necessary.

Abduction: the absence or presence of the abducted determines whether the offence was committed or not.

The intention of the accused

Kidnapping: The accused’s intent to abduct a minor is irrelevant to the crime they are accused of committing.

Abduction: When assessing an accused person’s guilt, one of the most crucial factors is their intention when abducting.

Nature of the offence

Kidnapping: it cannot be said to be a continuing offence as the offence is committed as soon as the person is taken out of his/her legal guardianship.

Abduction: it is a continuing offence as the location of the abduction is bound to change.

CONCLUSION

Even though at the first instance kidnapping and abduction may sound the same to any individual, there are certain differences between them which need to be understood as both of their legal connotations and definitions differ. Abduction lacks the intent to harm or take advantage of the victim, whereas kidnapping does. While kidnapping is always illegal, there are some situations where abduction is acceptable from a legal standpoint. Knowing the distinctions between both of these terms is crucial in order to make sure that, in the event of an unlawful detention or confinement, the proper legal action is taken.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
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Evolution and history of trademark law in India

Class Notes

Kritika Bhusari

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February 11, 2024

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Evolution and history of trademark law in India

“Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.” – World Intellectual Property Rights Organisation. Intellectual Property is the kind of property that is derived out of one’s own intellect and creativity. Every human endeavor that advances society’s economic, social, scientific, and cultural advancements should be supported, and the creator should be given a fair reward by having his intellectual property protected by the law. Thus, the legal rights controlling the use of works created by the human mind are known as intellectual property rights.

A name, phrase, or symbol that distinguishes products from those of other businesses is included in a trademark. Using a trademark makes it much easier to market goods or services through procedures because it ensures and facilitates easier product recognition. The owner has the right to prohibit a competitor from using his trademark or sign.

Table of Contents

Evolution Of Trademark

Humans have always been creative and inventive beings. In earlier times, they created jewelry, stone, hunting gear, vessels, and other items. Later, as spirituality began to emerge, they created figurines of divinities and deities. Originally, items had marks applied to them to identify who owned them and to scare off potential thieves. The ancient people attempted to regulate inferior products in this way, and since the product’s maker could be automatically identified, those who copied it were penalized.

Potential customers were more likely to have faith in a trademark’s products and services the more well-known it became. When a mark was applied, it indicated that the manufacturer was the only party with ownership rights, which served to dissuade those with controversial views. There were mainly two kinds of marks to be found, they were, Merchant marks and Production marks.

While the production mark confirmed the origin, the merchant’s mark showed ownership. Guilds were organizations that used production marks to regulate entry into specific trades and ensure quality. Additionally, people began etching their names on ships; this constituted the earliest and most commonly recognized use of trademarks, allowing for identification in the event of ship wreckage. Trademarks were also used by businesspeople and guild members who began claiming them as a mark on their products. As a result, the manufacturer was held accountable for the caliber of the products produced and for keeping their clients.

The goal of contemporary marks is not to identify ownership, unlike the proprietary marks used in the Middle Ages. Unlike in the past, when trademarks were a liability, they are now an asset for the producer.

History of Trademark Law in India

Marks have long been protected by intellectual property in India. A mark known as the “merchants mark” first emerged in the tenth century and became a symbol among traders and merchants that grew significantly. These marks, which are essentially one type of “proprietary mark,” were used to demonstrate the ownership rights of goods, such as trading emblems on currency, cattle markings, and pottery markings.

In the middle ages, traders and artisans applied marks to their products to set themselves apart from producers of inferior goods and to preserve faith in the guilds. Known as “production marks,” these marks were used to keep monopolies in place. These production markings made it easier for customers to recognize and take responsibility for subpar products, such as those that were lightweight, made of subpar materials, or manufactured utilizing poor-quality craftsmanship.

In 1266, during the reign of King Henry III, the first trademark laws took effect in England. In order to protect consumers, a set of regulations known as “the Assize of Bread and Ale” set limits on the size, weight, and cost of bread in addition to the purity of flour. For regulators to track the actual origin of a loaf, bakers were required to mark their bread with a unique sign. The Bakers Marking Law was another name for it. The name of the law implies that bakers had to mark their bread with their identification in order to sell it.

Bartolo da Sassoferrato, a renowned Italian jurist who lived from 1314 to 1357, wrote a great deal about trademark law and published many articles on the subject. He found it curious that he was so well-liked that he made an appearance in the Comedia dell’arte while giving inspiration to Doctor Bartolo in Mozart’s opera Le Nozze di Figaro. In the treaty Tractatus de Insignis et Armis, for example, he brought up a number of issues, some of which are still relevant today. He examined the insignia and coat of arms carried on banners and shields in this treaty, commenting on whether or not they could be worn and, if so, how they should be worn and painted.

It was not until recently that scholars recognized Southern V. How , decided in 1618, as the first trademark case in Anglo-American law. This is true even though the case concerned the sale of fake jewels rather than a trademark. The link to the trademark was made by the presiding judge’s allusion to a previous, unidentified, and unreported case from 1584 in which a cloth maker sued another cloth maker for using his mark. It has been determined that the earlier clothier case, which is now known as Sanforth’s Case and was only recently found, is the first known trademark case in Anglo-American law. It proves beyond a shadow of a doubt that trademark infringement was considered a tort of deceit and a violation of the laws against unfair competition even 250 years before the Industrial Revolution.

India had no official trademark law in the 20th century until 1940. Many issues pertaining to infringement, passing off, etc. were resolved by applying section 54 of the Specific Relief Act of 1877, and the registration was decided by obtaining a declaration of trademark ownership under the Indian Registration Act of 1908. In 1940, the Indian Trademarks Act was enacted to address the aforementioned challenges; it was that is similar to the English Trademarks Act.

Under consideration of the current advancements in business practices and trade, the growing globalization of commerce and industry, the necessity of promoting technology transfer and investment, the necessity of implementing a trademark management system, and the need to implement significant court rulings, the Trademarks Bill was introduced in 1994 with the intention of achieving these goals. The Bill, which was supposed to be amended, ended up dying in 1994 but the Government of India continued to speculate on it.

Given the advancements in trade and commercial practices, as well as the growing globalization of trade and industry, a thorough examination of the current legal framework was conducted. The Trade and Merchandise Mark Act of 1958 was replaced by the Trade Marks Act of 1999, which was ratified by the President on December 30, 1999, after the Trademarks Bill of 1999 was passed by Parliament.

Conclusion

Intellectual property is a common and well-known concept. It is now a widely used concept in everyday life. Trademarks, which are forms of intellectual property, have existed since the 10th century. The laws and statutes governing trademarks are constantly evolving and have undergone numerous changes throughout history, resulting in improved precision and protection for trademarks.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
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हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 के तहत विवाह, उसके प्रावधान और उनके कानूनी प्रभाव

Hindi

Law Article

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February 10, 2024

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हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम 1955 भारतीय संसद का एक विधायी अधिनियम है जिसका उद्देश्य हिंदुओं और उन लोगों के बीच विवाह को विनियमित करना है जो हिंदू धर्म, बौद्ध धर्म, जैन धर्म या सिख धर्म में परिवर्तित हो गए हैं। यह अधिनियम हिंदुओं के बीच प्रचलित विविध विवाह कानूनों को संहिताबद्ध और एकीकृत करने और विवाहों को संपन्न करने और समाप्त करने के लिए कानूनी तंत्र प्रदान करने का प्रयास करता है।

Table of Contents

हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 के प्रमुख प्रावधानों में शामिल हैं:

1. प्रयोज्यता: यह अधिनियम उन व्यक्तियों पर लागू होता है जो हिंदू धर्म, बौद्ध धर्म, जैन धर्म और सिख धर्म का पालन करते हैं।

2. विवाह का अनुष्ठापन: अधिनियम एक वैध हिंदू विवाह के लिए शर्तें निर्धारित करता है, जिसमें पात्रता मानदंड, समारोह और पंजीकरण आवश्यकताएं शामिल हैं।

3. विवाह के लिए शर्तें: अधिनियम विवाह की न्यूनतम आयु, मानसिक क्षमता, निषिद्ध रिश्ते, एक विवाह, और बहुत कुछ जैसी शर्तों को निर्दिष्ट करता है।

4. शून्य और शून्यकरणीय विवाह: अधिनियम शून्य विवाहों (जो शुरू से ही गैरकानूनी हैं) और शून्यकरणीय विवाहों (वे जो अदालत द्वारा रद्द किए जाने तक वैध हैं) के बीच अंतर करता है।

5. वैवाहिक अधिकारों की बहाली: अधिनियम वैवाहिक अधिकारों की बहाली के लिए प्रावधान प्रदान करता है, जिससे पति-पत्नी वैवाहिक सहवास की बहाली के लिए अदालत में याचिका दायर कर सकते हैं।

6. न्यायिक अलगाव: जोड़े कुछ परिस्थितियों में न्यायिक अलगाव की मांग कर सकते हैं, जो विवाह को भंग नहीं करता है बल्कि उन्हें अलग रहने की अनुमति देता है।

7. तलाक: अधिनियम तलाक के लिए आधारों की रूपरेखा तैयार करता है, जिसमें व्यभिचार, क्रूरता, परित्याग, दूसरे धर्म में रूपांतरण और बहुत कुछ शामिल है। तलाक आपसी सहमति से मांगा जा सकता है या अदालत के माध्यम से लड़ा जा सकता है।

8. भरण-पोषण और गुजारा भत्ता: अधिनियम तलाक या अलगाव की स्थिति में पति-पत्नी और बच्चों के भरण-पोषण के लिए प्रावधान करता है।

9. बच्चों की हिरासत: अधिनियम तलाक या अलगाव के मामले में बच्चों की हिरासत और संरक्षकता को संबोधित करता है।

10. सहायक मामले: यह अधिनियम हिंदू विवाह से संबंधित संपत्ति के अधिकार, उत्तराधिकार और विरासत जैसे मामलों से संबंधित है।

11. विशेष विवाह अधिनियम: यह अधिनियम अंतरधार्मिक विवाहों के लिए हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम का एक विकल्प प्रदान करता है, जो विशेष विवाह अधिनियम, 1954 के माध्यम से हिंदुओं को अपने धर्म के बाहर विवाह करने की अनुमति देता है।

सामाजिक परिवर्तनों और कानूनी विकास को संबोधित करने के लिए हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 में कई बार संशोधन किया गया है। यह भारत में हिंदू विवाहों को नियंत्रित करने वाला एक महत्वपूर्ण कानून है, जो हिंदू समुदाय के भीतर व्यक्तिगत संबंधों, अधिकारों और दायित्वों के लिए एक रूपरेखा प्रदान करता है।

हिंदू विवाह की अनिवार्यताएं

हिंदू धर्म में विवाह को सबसे महत्वपूर्ण और पवित्र संस्कारों में से एक माना जाता है। यह धर्म के दस संस्कारों में से अंतिम है, जो उन व्यक्तियों के उत्थान के लिए आवश्यक है जो संन्यासी नहीं बनना चाहते हैं। हिंदू विवाह के लिए एक बुनियादी शर्त यह है कि समारोह में शामिल दोनों व्यक्ति हिंदू होने चाहिए।

1955 के हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम में विशिष्ट शर्तों को परिभाषित किया गया है जिन्हें किसी विवाह को वैध माने जाने के लिए पूरा किया जाना चाहिए। ये शर्तें अधिनियम की धारा 5 के तहत सूचीबद्ध हैं। हालाँकि, लीला गुप्ता बनाम लक्ष्मी नारायण और अन्य के मामले में, सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने माना कि अधिनियम की धारा 5 में उल्लिखित सभी शर्तें अनिवार्य नहीं हैं। यह ध्यान रखना महत्वपूर्ण है कि अदालत के फैसले ने अधिनियम की आवश्यकताओं की व्याख्या और कार्यान्वयन में कुछ लचीलापन प्रदान किया, जिससे हिंदू विवाहों के लिए अधिक सूक्ष्म दृष्टिकोण की अनुमति मिली।

वैध हिंदू विवाह के लिए शर्त

1. एकपत्नीत्व

अधिनियम की धारा 5 (i) बहुविवाह और बहुपति प्रथा पर रोक लगाती है। इसमें कहा गया है कि शादी के समय किसी भी पक्ष के पास जीवित जीवनसाथी नहीं होना चाहिए। इस शर्त की विफलता अधिनियम की धारा 11 के तहत विवाह को अमान्य कर देगी। इसके अलावा, पार्टी आईपीसी की धारा 494 और 495 के तहत द्विविवाह के लिए उत्तरदायी होगी।

भोगदी कन्नबाबू बनाम वुग्गिना पायदामा और अन्य तथा यमुना अनंतराव अधव ए बनाम राणात्राओ शिवराव अधव और एएनआर जैसे मामलों में, शीर्ष अदालत ने माना कि पहली शादी के अस्तित्व के दौरान, दूसरी शादी अमान्य है।

2. शर्तें हैं

धारा 5 (ii) के तहत, विवाह के समय कोई भी पक्ष नहीं

(ए) अपने विकृत दिमाग के कारण वैध सहमति देने में असमर्थ है।

(बी) इस तरह के या इस हद तक मानसिक विकार से पीड़ित है कि वह शादी और बच्चे पैदा करने के लिए अयोग्य है।

(सी) बार-बार पागलपन के हमलों का शिकार हुआ है।

यदि इनमें से कोई भी शर्त पूरी नहीं होती है तो अधिनियम की धारा 12 (1)(बी) के तहत विवाह अमान्य है। श्रीमती में. अलका शर्मा बनाम अभिषेक चंद्र शर्मा मामले में मध्य प्रदेश उच्च न्यायालय ने कहा कि यदि पक्ष के मानसिक विकार के कारण एक भी शर्त या दोनों शर्तें पूरी होती हैं तो अदालत शादी को रद्द कर सकती है।

3. उम्र

अधिनियम की धारा 5 (iii) के तहत, विवाह के समय दूल्हा और दुल्हन ने 21 वर्ष की आयु पूरी कर ली है। शर्त का उल्लंघन करने पर विवाह रद्द नहीं होगा बल्कि यह अधिनियम की धारा 18 (ए) के तहत अपराध है यानी 2 साल तक का साधारण कारावास या 1000/- रुपये का जुर्माना या दोनों।

4. संबंध की निषिद्ध डिग्री

अधिनियम की धारा 5 (iv) के तहत रिश्ते की निषिद्ध डिग्री के भीतर आने वाले व्यक्तियों के विवाह को प्रतिबंधित किया गया है। यदि इसके तहत कोई विवाह संपन्न होता है तो अधिनियम की धारा 11 के तहत विवाह शून्य होगा। इसके अलावा, इस धारा का उल्लंघन करने पर अधिनियम की धारा 18 (बी) के तहत 1 महीने तक का साधारण कारावास या 1000/- का जुर्माना या दोनों होंगे।

5. सपिण्ड सम्बन्ध

अधिनियम की धारा 5 (v) के तहत, सपिंड संबंध रखने वाले व्यक्तियों के बीच विवाह निषिद्ध है जब तक कि कोई प्रथा न हो जो उन्हें ऐसा करने की अनुमति देती हो। सपिंडा का अर्थ है एक ऐसा व्यक्ति जिसे उसके तीन या कभी-कभी छह निकटतम वंशीय पुरुष पूर्वजों या वंशजों में से किसी एक के संबंध में माना जाता है। इसके तहत किया गया कोई भी विवाह अधिनियम की धारा 11 के तहत अमान्य होगा और इस धारा का उल्लंघन करने पर अधिनियम की धारा 18 (बी) के तहत 1 महीने तक का साधारण कारावास या 1000/- का जुर्माना या दोनों हो सकते हैं।

ऐतिहासिक मामले

श्री जीतेन्द्र कुमार शर्मा बनाम राज्य

इस मामले में, शादी दो नाबालिग पक्षों के बीच हुई थी जो प्यार में पड़ गए थे और शादी के बाद भाग गए थे। लड़की के पिता ने अदालत के समक्ष दलील दी कि उनकी बेटी और याचिकाकर्ता जितेंद्र कुमार के बीच शादी अमान्य थी क्योंकि इसने हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 की धारा धारा 5 (iii) का उल्लंघन किया है।

निर्णय– अदालत ने यह इंगित करते हुए कि धारा 5 (iii) न तो शून्य विवाह और न ही शून्य विवाह का आधार है, ने राय दी कि नाबालिग जोड़ा संबंधित परिवारों से किसी भी दबाव के बिना एक साथ रहने के लिए स्वतंत्र है।

निष्कर्ष

1955 में अधिनियमित हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, भारत में एक महत्वपूर्ण कानून है जो हिंदू विवाहों को नियंत्रित करने वाले विभिन्न रीति-रिवाजों और परंपराओं को एक व्यापक कानूनी ढांचे में एक साथ लाता है। यह अधिनियम मानता है कि हिंदू विवाह केवल एक निजी मामला नहीं है, बल्कि एक सामाजिक संस्था भी है, और इसलिए, यह हिंदू विवाह में प्रवेश करने वाले व्यक्तियों को कानूनी स्पष्टता और सुरक्षा प्रदान करना चाहता है।

यह अधिनियम हिंदू विवाह के विभिन्न पहलुओं को शामिल करता है, जिसमें विवाह का समापन, पति-पत्नी के अधिकार और जिम्मेदारियां, विवाह को समाप्त करने का आधार और रखरखाव, हिरासत और विरासत से संबंधित मामले शामिल हैं। यह एक वैध हिंदू विवाह के लिए शर्तें निर्धारित करता है, जैसे कि विवाह करने के लिए पार्टियों की पात्रता, विवाह की आयु और रिश्ते की कुछ डिग्री का निषेध।

इसके अलावा, यह अधिनियम लैंगिक समानता के महत्व को पहचानता है और विवाह में दोनों पति-पत्नी को समान अधिकार प्रदान करता है। यह पति/पत्नी के भरण-पोषण का अधिकार, बच्चों की अभिरक्षा का अधिकार और मृत्यु के मामले में पति/पत्नी की संपत्ति को विरासत में पाने का अधिकार प्रदान करता है। यह अधिनियम क्रूरता, व्यभिचार और परित्याग जैसे कुछ आधारों पर विवाह के विघटन का भी प्रावधान करता है।

हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम बदलते सामाजिक मानदंडों और जरूरतों के अनुरूप विकसित हुआ है, जबकि हिंदू विवाह के मूल सिद्धांतों को अभी भी संरक्षित रखा गया है। समाज के विभिन्न वर्गों की चिंताओं को दूर करने के लिए इसमें कई संशोधन हुए हैं, जैसे 1986 में संशोधन जिसने इस अधिनियम को बौद्ध, जैन और सिखों सहित सभी हिंदुओं पर लागू किया।

निष्कर्षतः, हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 ने हिंदू विवाह करने वाले व्यक्तियों को कानूनी स्पष्टता और सुरक्षा प्रदान करने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई है। व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता और सामाजिक स्थिरता दोनों पर जोर देने के साथ, यह अधिनियम भारत में पारिवारिक कानून की आधारशिला के रूप में काम करता है, जो हिंदू समुदाय के भीतर वैवाहिक संबंधों के परिदृश्य को आकार देता है।

Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956

Class Notes

Shreya Sharma

-

February 9, 2024

1

Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956

In ancient India, there were no laws regarding the guardianship of a child. It was only during the British era that laws of guardianship were evolved in courts. A guardian is a person who is formally appointed by the court to look after a child after the death of its parents until he is 18 years of age. Guardianship laws are codified under the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, of 1956.

The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act

This act is a significant legislation that amends and codifies certain parts of the law relating to minorities and guardianship among Hindus. The Parliament of India enacted the Act on August 25, 1956. Its objective is to define guardianship relationships between adults and minors in Hindu families and establish rules for the protection and welfare of Hindu minor children.

The Act covers various aspects such as the appointment and powers of natural guardians, the custody of minor children, and the rights and obligations of guardians. It also outlines the rules regarding the natural guardianship of adopted children and the overriding effect of the Act on other laws related to minor guardianship. The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956 is an essential and decisive legislation that amends and codifies specific aspects of the law concerning guardianship and minorities among Hindus.

This legislation was introduced to enhance the provisions of the Guardians and Wards Act of 1890, and it serves to specifically address the issues related to guardianship and minorities among Hindus. The Act aims to ensure the proper care, protection, and well-being of Hindu minor children and establish a legal framework for their guardianship. It is a crucial law that has helped in maintaining the welfare of Hindu minor children and protecting their rights in all aspects.

Important Definition

- “minor” means a person who has not completed the age of eighteen years,
- “guardian” means a person having the care of the person of a minor or his property or of both his person and property and includes.
- “natural guardian” means any of the guardians mentioned in section 6

Types of Guardian

1. Natural Guardian

Section 6 of the Act stipulates that Natural Guardian is a type of guardianship that arises from the natural relationship between the minor and the father, mother, or adopted parents. In this regard, the father is recognized as the natural guardian of a minor girl or boy. However, after the father’s death, the mother becomes the next in line to be the natural guardian.

Section 6 (1) provides that, in the case of a minor boy or unmarried girl, the father and, subsequently, the mother are considered natural guardians, with the custody of a minor under the age of five remaining with the mother. However, this statutory provision was modified by two landmark cases, namely Gita Hariharan v/s Reserve Bank of India and Vandana Shiva v/s Jayanta Bandhopadhya.

The Supreme Court held that, in some instances, the mother can be recognized as the natural guardian even when the father is alive. The Court further clarified that the term “after him” should be construed as “in advance of.” In this context, the absence of the father means the absence of a father from the life of children. Moreover, if the parents have separated and are living apart for an extended period, and the minor child is residing with the mother, she would automatically become the natural guardian of the minor.

In cases where the father of a child is unconcerned about the life and welfare of the minor, or is physically unable to take care of the minor, the father can be deemed absent. In such a scenario, the mother can validly act on behalf of the minor as its natural guardian.

The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act details the natural guardianship of minor children. Section 6(2) dictates that in the case of an illegitimate boy or an unmarried girl, the natural guardians are the mother and father. In contrast, Section 6(3) states that when a girl is married, the husband becomes the natural guardian.

Power of natural guardian

Section 8 of the Act goes into detail regarding the powers that are vested in a natural guardian of a Hindu minor. As per the act’s provisions, a natural guardian is responsible for performing all essential and valuable tasks that are necessary for the protection and well-being of the minor. These tasks may include ensuring the minor’s education, healthcare, and general welfare.

Moreover, the natural guardian is required to obtain court permission before engaging in any transaction, transferring, or mortgaging the minor’s immovable property. This is to ensure that the minor’s property rights are protected and not compromised in any way. Additionally, if the natural guardian wishes to lease the minor’s property for a period of more than five years or one year after the minor attains the age of majority, court permission is mandatory.

It’s important to note that any disposal of the minor’s immovable property by the natural guardian is considered voidable unless initiated by the minor or someone acting on their behalf. This means that if the minor decides to challenge the transaction, they have the right to do so. The court cannot authorize any of the aforementioned actions unless it is in the best interest of the minor.

To obtain court permission, an application must be submitted to the court within whose local jurisdiction the minor’s property is situated, as per Section 29 of the Guardians and Ward. This ensures that the court that is most familiar with the minor’s circumstances makes the decision that is in their best interest

2. Testamentary Guardian

Testamentary guardians are those appointed via a will to provide for a minor’s guardianship in the event of the natural guardian’s demise or incapacitation. However, a testamentary guardian cannot act as the guardian if the natural guardians are still alive. During the British period, testamentary powers were conferred on fathers, which allowed them to exclude the mother from her right to be the natural guardian of the child.

After the enactment of said act, it is clear that a natural guardian is preferred above a testamentary guardian. Suppose the father appoints a testamentary guardian and the mother outlives him. In that case, she will become the natural guardian of the child, and the testamentary guardian will only exercise their rights and power after the mother’s passing.

It’s essential to understand the difference between a natural guardian and a testamentary guardian to ensure that your minor children receive proper care and protection in case of any unforeseen circumstances.

Who may appoint a Testamentary Guardian?

1. Hindu father, either natural or adoptive.
2. Hindu mother, either natural or adoptive.
3. A natural widowed mother, either natural or adoptive.

Who can appoint a testamentary guardian?

A Hindu father is entitled to act as a natural guardian and he even can appoint a testamentary guardian by his will for the protection of the minor and his property after his death. If a Hindu father appoints a testamentary guardian but the mother is alive, so in this case after the death of the father testamentary guardian appointed by the father will have no right, the mother will become the natural guardian of the child.

However, if the mother is alive, then she becomes the natural guardian of the child after the father’s death, and the testamentary guardian appointed by the father ceases to have any legal right over the child. This provision is in place to ensure that the child’s welfare remains the top priority, and the mother, being the biological parent, is best suited to fulfill this role.

In case both parents appoint different testamentary guardians, and the father passes away while the mother is still alive, then the testamentary guardian appointed by the mother takes over the responsibility of the child after her death. This provision ensures that the child’s interests are protected, and they have a stable and nurturing environment to grow up in.

To illustrate this, suppose A and B are parents of C, where A is the father, and B is the mother. A appoints X as the testamentary guardian, while B appoints Y as the testamentary guardian. If A dies first, then B becomes the natural guardian of the child and after B’s death, Y will become the testamentary guardian of the child, ensuring that the child receives adequate care and support .

Power of Testmentary Guardian

Section 9 of the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 deals with appointing a testamentary guardian and outlines their rights. As per Section 9 (1), a Hindu father who is the natural guardian of a minor legitimate child has the authority and power to appoint a guardian for the child by including it in his will. The appointed guardian will then be responsible for the care of the minor child as well as their property.

Who is disqualified from becoming a testamentary guardian?

In the legal case of Smt Vinod Kumari v/s Smt Draupadi Devi, a Hindu woman approached the court seeking guardianship of her two sons. The first son was born out of wedlock with her now-deceased husband, while the second son was born to her husband from a previous marriage. The court observed that the woman was the stepmother of the son born out of wedlock and therefore concluded that she could not be appointed as a testamentary guardian. Instead, the court appointed the grandmother as the testamentary guardian of the stepson. This decision was based on the legal principle that a stepmother cannot be considered a testamentary guardian.

Removal of testamentary Guardian

Section 39 of the Guardian and Ward Act, 1890

39(i) There is ill-treatment by Testamentary guardians.

39(ii) Fails to perform assigned duties.

39(iii) Incapable to perform assigned duties.

39(iv)Abuse of his trust.

39(v)If he acts in any way which is against any of the provisions of the act.

39(vi) Conviction in any case for any offense.

39(vii) Having an adverse interest in the ward.

39(viii) If he ceases to live within the local limits of the jurisdiction.

39(xi) If he is insolvent or bankrupt

Case

KIRTIKUMAR JOSHI v/s PRADIP KUMAR JOSHI

The father and the maternal uncle both sought custody of two minor children. The children’s mother had died under suspicious circumstances and the father was facing charges under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code. The children were currently residing with their maternal uncle and had expressed their desire to continue living with him instead of their father. The court ultimately granted custody to the maternal uncle.

3. De facto Guardians

A de facto guardian is a person who has been appointed by the court to take care of the property of a minor. Unlike a natural or testamentary guardian, who has legal custody of the minor, a de facto guardian is only responsible for managing the minor’s assets. This means that they can make decisions regarding the property of the minor, but they do not have the authority to make decisions about the minor’s personal life.

After the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act came into effect, it was established that no individual can dispose of or deal with the property of a Hindu minor solely based on their being a defacto guardian. This means that a defacto guardian cannot sell, transfer, or alter the property of the minor without proper legal authorization. The Act also ensures that the rights of the minor are protected and that the property is used for their benefit and well-being.

Conclusion

When a child is adopted by a guardian, it creates a legal relationship that falls under the subject matter of personal law. This means that the child and the guardian are bound by law to fulfill certain obligations towards each other. For a minor, it is imperative to protect their property, and for that reason, a guardian is appointed to take care of the child and their assets. The guardian is responsible for the child’s welfare, education, and overall development. They must ensure that the child has a safe and nurturing environment to grow up in.

The system of appointing guardians was created by lawmakers to protect minors, unmarried girls, and widows. It ensures that no one can steal the property of a minor. The guardian is legally bound to manage the property of the child responsibly and transparently. They must keep a record of all transactions and provide regular updates to the court regarding the management of the assets.

Without a guardian, a minor is vulnerable to physical and mental harm and is at risk of danger. Therefore, the appointment of a guardian is critical for a minor’s protection, and it should never be taken lightly. The guardian must be a responsible person who can provide a safe and nurturing environment for the child to grow up in. They must ensure that the child receives proper education, healthcare, and other necessities of life.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
How To Send A Legal Notice In India

स्त्रीधन क्या है? हिंदू कानून के तहत महिला के अधिकार

Hindi

Shreya Sharma

-

February 8, 2024

0

स्त्रीधन क्या है? हिंदू कानून के तहत महिला के अधिकार

हिंदू संस्कृति में, स्त्रीधन का तात्पर्य एक महिला के स्वामित्व वाली संपत्ति से है जो उसके पति की संपत्ति से अलग है। स्त्रीधन शब्द स्मृतियों और गौतम के धर्मसूत्र में आया है और इसका अर्थ है महिलाओं की संपत्ति। आधुनिक शुद्ध हिंदू कानून में, स्त्रीधन शब्द न केवल स्मृतियों में उल्लिखित विशिष्ट प्रकार की संपत्ति को दर्शाता है, बल्कि महिलाओं द्वारा अर्जित और स्वामित्व वाली अन्य प्रकार की संपत्ति को भी दर्शाता है, जिस पर उनका पूर्ण नियंत्रण था और उन्होंने ऐसी संपत्ति के संबंध में वंश का स्टॉक बनाया था।

इस संपत्ति में सभी प्रकार की चल और अचल संपत्तियां शामिल हैं, जैसे गहने, नकदी, जमा राशि और बहुत कुछ। आम तौर पर, ये संपत्तियां किसी महिला को उसके माता-पिता या रिश्तेदारों से प्राप्त होती हैं या शादी के दौरान या उसके बाद उसके द्वारा अपने अधिकार में अर्जित की जाती हैं। “स्त्रीधन” शब्द का प्रयोग सदियों से किया जाता रहा है और इसका उल्लेख प्राचीन हिंदू ग्रंथों और कानूनों में भी मिलता है। इसे महिला की पूर्ण संपत्ति माना जाता है और इस पर उसका पूरा नियंत्रण होता है।

गौरतलब है कि स्त्रीधन दहेज से अलग है, जो शादी के समय महिला के परिवार द्वारा पति के परिवार को दिया जाता है। स्त्रीधन की परिभाषा और स्रोत क्षेत्र और समुदाय के आधार पर भिन्न हो सकते हैं। स्त्रीधन दहेज से इस मायने में भिन्न है कि यह एक महिला को उसकी शादी से पहले या बाद में दिया जाने वाला एक स्वैच्छिक उपहार है और इसमें जबरदस्ती का कोई तत्व नहीं है। महिलाओं को अपने स्त्रीधन पर पूर्ण अधिकार है। चल या अचल किसी भी रूप में स्त्रीधन हो सकता है।

Table of Contents

स्त्रीधन कैसे प्राप्त किया जाता है?

स्त्रीधन कैसे अर्जित किया जाता है, इसके लिए हिंदू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम 1956 की धारा 14 के अनुसार, महिलाओं द्वारा निम्नलिखित स्रोतों से प्राप्त संपत्ति उनकी पूर्ण संपत्ति है:

शादी से पहले, शादी के बाद और शादी के दौरान प्राप्त उपहार;
पारिवारिक संपत्ति के विभाजन के दौरान उसके विशेष हिस्से के रूप में प्राप्त संपत्ति;
अजनबियों से उपहार और वसीयत;
विरासत द्वारा अर्जित संपत्ति;
प्रतिकूल कब्जे से अर्जित संपत्ति;
भरण-पोषण के बदले दी गई संपत्ति;
यांत्रिक कला द्वारा अर्जित संपत्ति;
समझौते से प्राप्त संपत्ति;
स्त्रीधन से खरीदी गई संपत्ति या स्त्रीधन की आय से बचत; और
ऊपर उल्लिखित स्रोतों के अलावा अन्य स्रोतों से अर्जित संपत्ति।

संबद्ध कानून के तहत आवेदन

हिंदू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम 1956 और हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम 1955 के अनुसार, भारत में महिलाएं अपने स्त्रीधन की हकदार हैं, जो उस संपत्ति और धन को संदर्भित करता है जो एक महिला शादी के समय अपने पति के घर में लाती है। भले ही स्त्रीधन पति या ससुराल वालों के पास रखा गया हो, उन्हें ट्रस्टी माना जाता है और महिला के अनुरोध पर इसे वापस करने के लिए कानूनी रूप से बाध्य होते हैं।

इसके अलावा, 2005 का घरेलू हिंसा अधिनियम, घरेलू दुर्व्यवहार के मामलों में महिलाओं को उनके स्त्रीधन का अधिकार प्रदान करता है। अधिनियम में कहा गया है कि यदि कोई महिला अपने स्त्रीधन की वसूली चाहती है, तो मजिस्ट्रेट प्रतिवादी को उसे उसके कब्जे में वापस करने का निर्देश दे सकता है।

घरेलू हिंसा अधिनियम, धारा 18 (ii) के तहत, आगे कहा गया है कि महिलाएं अपने स्त्रीधन, गहने, कपड़े और अन्य आवश्यक वस्तुएं प्राप्त करने की हकदार हैं। इस अधिनियम में ‘आर्थिक दुर्व्यवहार’ शब्द का उपयोग किसी महिला के पति या ससुराल वालों द्वारा उसके स्त्रीधन को रोक लेने के संदर्भ में किया गया है, जो उसकी वित्तीय स्थिरता और सामाजिक स्थिति पर गंभीर प्रभाव डाल सकता है।

Case Law

भाई शेर जंग सिंह v/s श्रीमती विरिंदर कौर

पंजाब और हरियाणा हाई कोर्ट ने शादी के रीति-रिवाजों को लेकर एक अहम फैसला सुनाया है। अदालत के अनुसार, यदि दुल्हन का परिवार शादी के समय संपत्ति की पेशकश करता है, तो अनुरोध पर उन्हें वापस करना दूल्हे पक्ष की जिम्मेदारी है। यदि वे ऐसा करने से इनकार करते हैं, तो उन्हें अदालत द्वारा दंड का सामना करना पड़ सकता है।

हाल के एक मामले में, भाई शेर जंग सिंह और उनके परिवार को आईपीसी की धारा 406 का उल्लंघन करते हुए पाया गया, जो कि आपराधिक विश्वासघात है। यह उल्लंघन विरिंदर कौर के स्त्रीधन से संबंधित है, जिसे उसने सुरक्षित रखने के लिए अपने पति को सौंपा था। अदालत ने पाया कि सिंह और उनके परिवार ने ऐसा करने के लिए बाध्य होने के बावजूद, अनुरोध पर दुल्हन के परिवार को संपत्ति वापस नहीं की थी। यह निर्णय यह सुनिश्चित करने की दिशा में एक महत्वपूर्ण कदम है कि इसमें शामिल सभी पक्षों द्वारा विवाह रीति-रिवाजों और परंपराओं को बरकरार रखा जाए और उनका सम्मान किया जाए।

देबी मंगल प्रसाद सिंह v/s महादेव प्रसाद सिंह (1912)

यह विशेष मामला इलाहाबाद उच्च न्यायालय द्वारा देखा गया था, जिसमें कहा गया था कि मिताक्षरा और दयाभागा दोनों स्कूलों के अनुसार, यह एक अच्छी तरह से स्थापित कानूनी सिद्धांत है कि विभाजन से किसी महिला द्वारा प्राप्त किसी भी हिस्से को स्त्रीधन के रूप में नहीं बल्कि महिला की संपत्ति के रूप में माना जाता है। . “स्त्रीधन” शब्द एक महिला की संपत्ति को संदर्भित करता है जिसे वह विरासत, उपहार या व्यक्तिगत कमाई के माध्यम से अर्जित करती है।

Conclusion (निष्कर्ष)

1956 का हिंदू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम हिंदू महिलाओं के लिए संपत्ति के अधिकार के इतिहास में एक महत्वपूर्ण मील का पत्थर दर्शाता है। यह उल्लेखनीय है क्योंकि यह उस समय अधिनियमित किया गया था जब महिलाओं के अधिकारों के बारे में कानूनी दृष्टिकोण बदल रहा था। अधिनियम से पहले, भुगवंडी डूबे बनाम मैना बाई (1869) में प्रिवी काउंसिल के फैसले ने स्थापित किया था कि एक महिला द्वारा अपने पति से अर्जित संपत्ति को उसका स्त्रीधन नहीं माना जाता था, जिसका अर्थ है कि यह उसकी मृत्यु के बाद पति के उत्तराधिकारियों को विरासत में मिलेगी। उसके उत्तराधिकारियों के बजाय।

इसी तरह, देबी सहाय बनाम शेओ शंकर लाल और अन्य (1900) में, प्रिवी काउंसिल ने माना था कि एक बेटी द्वारा अपनी मां से प्राप्त संपत्ति को बेटी का स्त्रीधन नहीं माना जाता था, और इसलिए वह मां के उत्तराधिकारियों को हस्तांतरित हो जाती थी। माँ की मृत्यु पर बेटी के उत्तराधिकारियों को। इसके विपरीत, 1956 के हिंदू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम ने हिंदू महिलाओं को विरासत और संपत्ति रखने के अधिकार को मान्यता दी, चाहे उसका स्रोत कुछ भी हो। यह महिलाओं के अधिकारों के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण जीत थी और इससे सदियों से चले आ रहे कानूनी भेदभाव और असमानता को सुधारने में मदद मिली, जो इस अधिनियम के परिणामस्वरूप पीढ़ियों से उन्हें नहीं मिल रही थी।

यह महिलाओं के अधिकारों के संरक्षण में एक महत्वपूर्ण कदम है क्योंकि यह किसी महिला की संपत्ति को उसके एकमात्र मालिक के रूप में हासिल करने और रखने में असमर्थता को समाप्त करता है। कानून के साथ-साथ न्यायपालिका को भी समान मात्रा में ऋण प्रदान किया जाना चाहिए, जिसने समग्र रूप से राष्ट्र के सामाजिक विकास को ध्यान में रखते हुए कानून के प्रावधानों की उदार व्याख्या प्रदान की है।

यह भी जानें:

Re Berubari Union Case 1960

Case Studies

Kritika Bhusari

-

February 6, 2024

0

Case Name: Re Berubari Union and Ors. V. Unknown
Date of Judgement: 14 March,1960
Equivalent Citation: AIR1960SC845, [1960]3SCR250
Bench: B.P. Sinha, A.K. Sarkar, J.C. Shah, K.C. Das Gupta, K. Subba Rao, M. Hidayatullah, P.B. Gajendragadkar, S.K. Das

Table of Contents

BACKGROUND OF THE CASE:

In The Berubari Union case the issue involves a legal dispute between the two nations- India and Pakistan questioning the rightful ownership of the Berubari region. Formerly and originally a part of Rajshahi Division, Berubari is a small town extending to 22.19 square kilometres in the Jalpaiguri District situated in West Bengal. The case concerned whether the cession of Berubari to Pakistan, in accordance with the “award” of a boundary commission, could be carried out by parliamentary legislation or if Article 368 of the Indian Constitution needed to be amended.

Sir Radcliff’s boundary delineation is the source of the dispute between India and Pakistan over Berubari. Following the ratification of the constitution, West Bengal annexed Berubari, which Sir Radcliff had awarded to India.

Pakistan objected to the acquire of Berubari, arguing that it belonged to East Bengal, which at the time was a part of Pakistan. Due to boundary disputes between Pakistan and India as a result, the Indo-Pakistan Boundary Disputes Tribunal was established in 1948. Over the following two years, though, no agreement was reached. Pakistan brought up the Berubari issue another time in 1950. The conflict went on for until 1958, when the two nations’ prime ministers made the decision to divide the Berubari Union in half in the horizontal direction.

FACTS OF THE BERUBARI UNION CASE:

Following the 1947 Independence Act, also referred to as the Mountbatten Plan, the partition of India into India and Pakistan was decided upon. The Two-Nations theory served as the foundation for this choice. The issue at hand concerned the territories that would be allocated to Pakistan and India. A commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe was established with the objective of allocating the state of Bihar. Within the next five weeks, the task of dividing the region between India and Pakistan fell to Sir Cyril John Radcliffe.

Throughout this process, Radcliffe himself experienced considerable confusion. Ultimately, he divided the areas according to the majority population that lived there by applying the principle of majoritarianism. For example, Pakistan was given the regions with a majority Muslim population, and India was given the regions with a majority Hindu population.

In Radcliffe’s written map, Berubari of West Bengal was erratically left off and given to India. India and Pakistan ended up involved in a dispute after Pakistan seized the chance to claim Berubari.

The Nehru-Noon Agreement was proposed in 1958 as a solution to this problem. This agreement called for an equal division of the Berubari region between Pakistan and India. To resolve the issue, the President did, however, request the Supreme Court’s advice in accordance with Article 143 of the Indian Constitution.

ISSUES RAISED:

To what extent does the implementation of the agreement pertaining to the Berubari Union require the legislative action?
If that was the case does Article 3 of the Indian Constitution address the purpose adequately, or does Article 368 of the Indian Constitution require further action to address the matter in order to fulfil the purpose?
Will article 3 of the Indian Constitution be adequate for implementing the Enclave exchange between the territories, or will an amendment in line with article 368 of the Indian Constitution be required to accomplish the goal?

RELATED PROVISIONS:

Article 1 (3) (c): The territory of India shall comprise- such other territories as may be acquired.
Article 3: Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states.
Article 368: Power of Parliament to amend Constitution and Procedure thereof.

JUDGEMENT:

The Supreme Court of India ruled that the area of Berubari was part of Indian territory and that it was unconstitutional to transfer it to East Pakistan. The reading of Article 3 of the Indian Constitution, a provision that grants the Indian Parliament the authority to change state borders, served as the foundation for the court’s ruling.

The Indian Parliament possessed the authority to relocate Berubari to West Bengal, as the court determined that the authority to alter state borders encompasses the ability to shift territory between states. Nonetheless, the court emphasized how important it is to protect citizens’ rights in border areas. In order to achieve this, the court decided that consent must be obtained before any land transfer that impacts someone’s rights can take place.

The applicable Articles were interpreted by the Supreme Court. For the purpose of putting the Agreement in question into effect, the Court found that Article 3 was ineffective on itself. It went on to say that a statute required for execution under Article 368 is competent. Furthermore, a statute of Parliament would be necessary in relation to both Article 3 and 368 if a change were to be made to Article 3 first, subsequently followed by the implementation of the Amended Article for the Agreement’s execution.

The Indian Constitution was affected by the Berubari Case in a number of other ways as well. It was established that although the Indian Constitution’s preamble is not a part of the document itself, it serves as a crucial guide for interpreting it. It also made the connection between the Indian Parliament and the Supreme Court more clear.

ANALYSIS:

The historic ruling in Re, Berubari, Union represented the legislature’s rights under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution and had a significant influence on the country’s judiciary. The case brought a number of questions before the Honorable Supreme Court of India, including whether or not a territory can be ceded from India, which article of the constitution permits it, and what other avenues exist for a parliament to use in order to cede land to another nation if it so chooses. These questions were addressed in a way that made it simpler for the parliament to decide on the subject at hand.

The Supreme Court’s decision and recommendation are unmistakably clear because they provided the parliament with a more comprehensive and understandable concept when making the decision regarding which the advice was requested. Therefore, the parliament decided to give Pakistan a portion of the territory and give India a portion of Pakistani territory.

CONCLUSION:

On occasion , the legislature will consult legal counsel regarding the constitutionality and legality of several of its own initiatives. I believe that the Supreme Court should try to interpret the laws abiding to the maxim- “ut res magis valeat quam pereat” i.e. to interpret the laws so that they do not diminish the intention of the Indian Constitution, nor do they crumble in the eyes of other nations, damaging India’s reputation as the country with the most elaborate Constitution in the world.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
How To Send A Legal Notice In India

Sources of Hindu Law हिन्दू विधि के स्रोत

Analysis

Shreya Sharma

-

February 5, 2024

0

Sources of Hindu Law हिन्दू विधि के स्रोत

हिंदू कानून एक प्राचीन कानूनी प्रणाली है। भारत विभिन्न धर्मों के लोगों की समृद्ध विविधता वाला देश है। अलग-अलग धार्मिक मान्यताओं को देखते हुए, एक एकीकृत कानून संहिता हमेशा प्रत्येक धर्म की भावनाओं को पूरा नहीं कर सकती है। परिणामस्वरूप, पर्सनल लॉ की अवधारणा पेश की गई है। पर्सनल लॉ का उद्देश्य एक कानूनी ढांचा प्रदान करना है जो विभिन्न समुदायों के धार्मिक रीति-रिवाजों और प्रथाओं को ध्यान में रखता है और यह सुनिश्चित करता है कि उनसे समझौता नहीं किया जाए। यह सुनिश्चित करने का एक तरीका है कि कानूनी प्रणाली भारत के विविध सांस्कृतिक ढांचे के प्रति संवेदनशील है और प्रत्येक नागरिक के साथ निष्पक्षता और सम्मान के साथ व्यवहार किया जाता है।

हिंदू कानून एक प्राचीन कानूनी और नैतिक संहिता प्रणाली है जो हिंदुओं के जीवन और व्यवहार को नियंत्रित करती है। हिंदू नियमों का पालन करने और उसके अनुसार कार्य करने के लिए बाध्य हैं। यह हिंदुओं को उनके व्यक्तिगत, सामाजिक और धार्मिक आचरण में मार्गदर्शन करता है। हिंदू कानून की जड़ें वेदों नामक प्राचीन ग्रंथों में हैं। इस ब्लॉग पोस्ट में, हम हिंदू कानून की जटिलताओं, इसके स्रोतों, सिद्धांतों, महत्व और आज की आधुनिक दुनिया में विभिन्न हिस्सों में प्रासंगिकता की खोज करेंगे।

Sources of Hindu Law (हिंदू कानून के स्रोत)

श्रुति
श्रुति का अर्थ है जो सुना गया। ऐसा माना जाता है कि श्रुतियों में देवताओं के अपने शब्द समाहित हैं। इसमें 4 वेदों, 6 वेदांगों और 18 उपनिषदों में पाए जाने वाले देवताओं के दिव्य शब्द शामिल हैं। ये अधिकतर धार्मिक स्वभाव के होते हैं। इसीलिए आधुनिक समय में हमें यह बहुत कम व्यावहारिक कानून लगता है।
स्मृतियों
स्मृतियों का अर्थ है जो याद किया गया। श्रुति और स्मृति दोनों में भगवान के वही शब्द हैं जिन्हें ऋषियों ने सुना, याद रखा और पीढ़ी-दर-पीढ़ी हस्तांतरित किया। मनु सबसे प्राचीन स्मृति है। मनु, याज्ञवल्क्य और नारद प्रमुख स्मृतियाँ हैं। हालाँकि स्मृतियाँ नैतिकता और धर्म के नियमों से संबंधित हैं।
कमेंट्री
टीकाओं को निबन्ध भी कहा जाता है। निबन्ध विभिन्न टिप्पणीकारों द्वारा स्मृतियों पर की गई व्याख्या है, ऐसे टिप्पणीकारों ने मूल पाठ को वर्तमान दुनिया की जरूरतों के अनुसार संशोधित किया है।
पुराणों
पुराण ऐसी संहिताएँ हैं जो कानून को उसके प्रयोग के उदाहरण देकर समझाती हैं।
न्यायायिक निर्णय
न्यायिक निर्णय हिंदू कानून का एक स्रोत हैं क्योंकि न्यायाधीश को मौजूदा कानून की व्याख्या और व्याख्या करनी होती है, न कि कोई नया कानून बनाना होता है। न्यायिक मिसालें हिंदू कानून के अनुप्रयोग में आवश्यक और उपयोगी मार्गदर्शक बन जाती हैं।
विधान
हिंदू कानून का एक बहुत बड़ा हिस्सा संहिताबद्ध किया गया है और यह मुख्य रूप से निम्नलिखित चार अधिनियमों में पाया जाता है: 1) हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 2) हिंदू अल्पसंख्यक और संरक्षकता अधिनियम, 1954 3) हिंदू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम, 1956 4) हिंदू दत्तक ग्रहण एवं भरण-पोषण अधिनियम.
न्याय, समानता और अच्छा विवेक
किसी भी निर्दिष्ट कानून की अनुपस्थिति और स्मृति और श्रुति के बीच टकराव की स्थिति में, न्याय, समानता और अच्छे विवेक के सिद्धांत को लागू किया जाएगा, दूसरे शब्दों में, न्यायाधीश की राय में जो सबसे उचित और न्यायसंगत होगा वह किया जाएगा। विशेष मामले
प्रथाएँ
रीति-रिवाजों को उन नियमों के रूप में परिभाषित किया जाता है जिनका लंबे समय से पालन किया जाता रहा है और जिन्हें हिंदुओं के लिए अनिवार्य का दर्जा प्राप्त है। रीति-रिवाज उचित होने चाहिए और यह देश के किसी भी कानून के विरुद्ध नहीं होना चाहिए।

Also Read : Domestic violence during lockdown

रीति-रिवाजों के प्रकार

स्थानीय रीति – रिवाज़
हिंदू संस्कृति में, रीति-रिवाज लोगों के जीवन के तरीके को आकार देने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं। हिंदू समुदाय में विभिन्न प्रकार के रीति-रिवाजों का पालन किया जाता है, जिनमें स्थानीय, सामान्य और पारिवारिक रीति-रिवाज शामिल हैं। स्थानीय रीति-रिवाज किसी विशेष भौगोलिक क्षेत्र के लिए विशिष्ट होते हैं और उस क्षेत्र के लोगों पर बाध्यकारी होते हैं। ये रीति-रिवाज आमतौर पर पीढ़ी-दर-पीढ़ी हस्तांतरित होते रहते हैं और स्थानीय संस्कृति और परंपराओं में गहराई से रचे-बसे होते हैं।
सामान्य रीति-रिवाज
दूसरी ओर, सामान्य रीति-रिवाज वे प्रथाएँ हैं जिनका पालन पूरे देश में किया जाता है। ये रीति-रिवाज किसी विशेष क्षेत्र या समुदाय के लिए विशिष्ट नहीं हैं और सभी हिंदुओं में प्रचलित हैं। सामान्य रीति-रिवाजों के उदाहरणों में लोगों को बधाई देने के तरीके के रूप में ‘नमस्ते’ का उपयोग और ‘तिलक’ का उपयोग शामिल है जो एक अनुष्ठानिक टिप्पणी है जो आशीर्वाद या शुभता का संकेत है।
पारिवारिक रीति-रिवाज
पारिवारिक रीति-रिवाज, जैसा कि नाम से पता चलता है, आम तौर पर केवल एक विशेष परिवार द्वारा ही पालन किया जाता है। इन रीति-रिवाजों का पालन परिवार के बाहर के किसी भी व्यक्ति के लिए अनिवार्य नहीं है। ये रीति-रिवाज प्रत्येक परिवार के लिए अद्वितीय हैं और इनमें विशिष्ट अनुष्ठान, परंपराएं या प्रथाएं शामिल हो सकती हैं जो पीढ़ी-दर-पीढ़ी चली आ रही हैं। वे पारिवारिक पहचान का एक महत्वपूर्ण हिस्सा हैं और अक्सर कहानियों और किंवदंतियों के साथ होते हैं जो उनके महत्व को समझाते हैं

यह भी जानें:

Women’s property: Stridhana under hindu law

Class Notes

Shreya Sharma

-

February 4, 2024

1

Women’s property: Stridhana under hindu law

In Hindu culture, Stridhan refers to the property owned by a woman that is separate from her husband’s property. The term Stridhana occurred amongst the Smritis and in the Dharmasutra of Gautam and means women’s property. In modern pure Hindu law, the term stridhana denoted not only the specific kinds of property enumerated in the Smritis but also other species of property acquired and owned by women over which she had absolute control and she formed the stock of descent in respect of such property.

This property includes all kinds of movable and immovable assets, such as jewelry, cash, deposits, and more. Generally, these assets are received by a woman from her parents or relatives or acquired by her in her own right during or after marriage. The term “stridhan” has been used for centuries and is mentioned in ancient Hindu texts and laws. It is considered the absolute property of a woman, and she has complete control over it.

It is worth noting that stridhan is different from the dowry, which is given by the woman’s family to the husband’s family at the time of marriage. The definition and sources of stridhan may vary based on the region and community. Stridhana differs from dowry in the way that it is a voluntary gift given to a woman before or after her marriage and has no element of coercion. Women have an absolute right over their stridhana. Any kind of movable and immovable in any form may constitute stridhana.

Contents

How stridhana is acquired?

As for how stridhan is acquired, according to section 14 of the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, property obtained by women from the following sources is her absolute property:

Gifts received before marriage, after marriage, and during marriage;
Property received as her exclusive share during the partition of family property;
Gifts and bequests from strangers;
Property acquired by inheritance;
property acquired by adverse possession;
Property given instead of maintenance;
Property acquired by mechanical arts;
Property obtained by compromise;
property purchased with stridhana or savings with income of stridhana; and
Property acquired from sources other than those mentioned above.

Application under allied law

As per the Hindu Succession Act, of 1956 and the Hindu Marriage Act, of 1955, women in India are entitled to their stridhan, which refers to the assets and wealth that a woman brings to her husband’s household at the time of marriage. Even if the stridhan is kept with the husband or in-laws, they are considered trustees and are legally obliged to return it upon the woman’s request.
Moreover, the Domestic Violence Act, of 2005, provides women with the right to their stridhana in cases of domestic abuse. The act states that if a woman seeks recovery of her stridhana, the magistrate may direct the respondent to return it to her possession.
The Domestic Violence Act, under section 18 (ii), further states that women are entitled to receive their stridhan, jewelry, clothes, and other necessary items. The term ‘economic abuse’ is used in this act to refer to the withholding of a woman’s stridhan by her husband or in-laws, which can have a severe impact on her financial stability and social status.

Case Law

Bhai Sher Jang Singh v/s Smt Virinder Kaur

The Punjab and Haryana High Court has made a significant ruling regarding marriage customs. According to the court, if the bride’s family offers assets at the time of marriage, it is the responsibility of the groom’s side to return them upon request. If they refuse to do so, they may face punishment by a court of law.

In a recent case, Bhai Sher Jang Singh and his family were found to have violated Section 406 of the IPC, which is the criminal breach of trust. This violation pertains to Virinder Kaur’s stridhana, which she had entrusted to her husband for safekeeping. The court found that Singh and his family had not returned the assets to the bride’s family upon request, despite being obligated to do so. This ruling is a significant step towards ensuring that marriage customs and traditions are upheld and respected by all parties involved.

Debi Mangal Prasad Singh v/s Mahadeo Prasad Singh (1912)

This particular case was observed by the Allahabad High Court, which stated that according to both the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga schools, it is a well-established legal principle that any share obtained by a female from partition is not considered as stridhana but as a women’s estate. The term “stridhana” refers to a woman’s property that she acquires either through inheritance, gift, or personal earnings.

However, after the passing of the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, the shared property obtained from partition was regarded as absolute property or stridhana. This means that the female becomes the owner of the absolute property and has complete rights to alienate it. She can gift, sell, lease, exchange, mortgage, or do whatever she chooses with the possession. This legal interpretation enables women to have full control over their property and exercise their rights to dispose of it according to their wishes.

Conclusion

The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 represents a significant milestone in the history of property rights for Hindu women. It is noteworthy because it was enacted at a time when the legal view of women’s rights was changing. Before the Act, the Privy Council’s ruling in Bhugwandee Doobey v. Myna Baee (1869) had established that property acquired by a woman from her husband was not considered her Stridhana, meaning it would be inherited by the heirs of the husband upon her death, rather than by her heirs.

Similarly, in Debi Sahai vs Sheo Shanker Lal And Anr (1900), the Privy Council had held that property obtained by a daughter from her mother was not considered the daughter’s Stridhana, and would therefore passed on to the heirs of the mother, rather than to the heirs of the daughter, upon the mother’s death. By contrast, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 recognized the right of Hindu women to inherit and own property, regardless of its source. This was a significant victory for women’s rights and helped to rectify centuries of legal discrimination and inequality that have been denied to them for generations as a result of this Act.

It is a monumental step forward in the preservation of women’s rights because it eliminates a woman’s inability to acquire and hold property as its sole owner. Along with the legislation, equal amounts of credit should be provided to the judiciary as well which has provided a liberal interpretation of the provisions of the legislation taking into account the social development of the nation as a whole.

Also Read:
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
How To Send A Legal Notice In India

LITERAL MEANING:

ORIGIN:

EXPLANATION:

CASE LAWS:

The key provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 include:

ESSENTIALS OF HINDU MARRIAGE

CONDITION FOR A VALID HINDU MARRIAGE

1. MONOGAMY

2. The conditions are

3. Age of the parties

4. Prohibited degree of relation

5. Prohibition of Sapinda Relationship

LANDMARK CASE

SHREE JITENDRA KUMAR SHARMA vs STATE

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

KIDNAPPING

ABDUCTION

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ABDUCTION AND KIDNAPPING

CONCLUSION

Evolution Of Trademark

History of Trademark Law in India

Conclusion

हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 के प्रमुख प्रावधानों में शामिल हैं:

हिंदू विवाह की अनिवार्यताएं

वैध हिंदू विवाह के लिए शर्त

ऐतिहासिक मामले

The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act

Important Definition

Types of Guardian

1. Natural Guardian

Power of natural guardian

2. Testamentary Guardian

Removal of testamentary Guardian

Case

3. De facto Guardians

Conclusion

स्त्रीधन कैसे प्राप्त किया जाता है?

संबद्ध कानून के तहत आवेदन

Case Law

भाई शेर जंग सिंह v/s श्रीमती विरिंदर कौर

देबी मंगल प्रसाद सिंह v/s महादेव प्रसाद सिंह (1912)

Conclusion (निष्कर्ष)

BACKGROUND OF THE CASE:

FACTS OF THE BERUBARI UNION CASE:

ISSUES RAISED:

RELATED PROVISIONS:

JUDGEMENT:

ANALYSIS:

CONCLUSION:

Sources of Hindu Law (हिंदू कानून के स्रोत)

रीति-रिवाजों के प्रकार

How stridhana is acquired?

Application under allied law

Case Law

Bhai Sher Jang Singh v/s Smt Virinder Kaur

Debi Mangal Prasad Singh v/s Mahadeo Prasad Singh (1912)

Conclusion

TESTIMONIALS

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