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Supreme Court’s Nuanced Approach to Section 498A IPC Cases

Dimple Kanojiya
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Supreme Court’s Nuanced Approach to Section 498A IPC Cases

Introduction

The Supreme Court’s recent pronouncement underscores a crucial aspect of legal interpretation in cases related to matrimonial disputes. In a significant ruling, the Court emphasized that not every instance of discord or annoyance between spouses amounts to the offense of “cruelty” under Section 498A IPC. This ruling serves as a caution against the mechanical application of Section 498A in all cases where wives file complaints against their husbands and in-laws.

The Court’s directive urges a nuanced approach, highlighting the need for careful consideration of the specific circumstances surrounding each complaint of harassment or ill-treatment. It emphasizes that Section 498A cannot be invoked automatically in every instance where a wife alleges mistreatment. Instead, the judiciary must undertake a thorough examination of matrimonial conduct before applying the provisions of the law.

In the ever-evolving landscape of Indian jurisprudence, the interpretation and application of laws, particularly those concerning matrimonial disputes, often present intricate challenges. The year 2022 witnessed several seminal judgments by the Supreme Court of India about Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), shedding light on the complexities inherent in cases of alleged cruelty against women and their relatives. Section 498A of the IPC, a legal provision aimed at protecting married women from cruelty and harassment, has long been a subject of debate due to concerns about its potential for misuse and overreach.

The Court’s guidance advocates for a sophisticated approach, accentuating the necessity for meticulous scrutiny of the particular circumstances encompassing each complaint of harassment or maltreatment. It underscores that Section 498A should not be invoked by default whenever a wife alleges mistreatment. Instead, the legal system must engage in a comprehensive evaluation of matrimonial behavior before enforcing the tenets of the legislation. Amid the ever-changing realm of Indian legal doctrine, the analyses and implementations of statutes, especially those involving marital disputes, frequently pose intricate hurdles. The year 2022 bore witness to numerous groundbreaking verdicts by the Supreme Court of India on Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), offering insights into the intricacies inherent in cases alleging cruelty against women and their associates. Section 498A of the IPC

Offense and Punishment

Subjecting a married woman to cruelty

– Informant: Information about the offense can be provided to the Station House Officer (SHO) by the aggrieved woman herself, her relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, or by a notified public servant.

– Punishment: The offender can face imprisonment for up to 3 years along with a fine.

– Cognizance: Nature: Non-cognizable, meaning the police cannot arrest without a warrant. However: It’s cognizable, meaning the police can investigate and make arrests without a warrant if they have reasonable grounds to believe that an offense has been committed.

– Bail: Non-bailable, meaning the accused cannot be released on bail except by a competent court.

– Triable By: The trial for this offense is conducted by a Magistrate First Class.

– Composition u/s 320 CrPC: The offense is not listed under compoundable offenses, which means the aggrieved woman or her relatives cannot enter into a compromise with the accused to drop the charges.

Subjecting a married woman to cruelty is a serious offense under Indian law. If the information about the offense is provided to the Station House Officer (SHO) by the aggrieved woman herself, her relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, or by a notified public servant, the punishment for the offender includes imprisonment for up to 3 years along with a fine.

The punishment for subjecting a married woman to cruelty is imprisonment for up to 3 years plus a fine. The offense is cognizable, meaning the police can arrest without a warrant. It is also non-bailable, so bail is at the discretion of the court. The trial will be conducted by a Magistrate First Class. Additionally, this offense is not compoundable under Section 320 of the Criminal Procedure Code (CRPC), meaning it cannot be settled between the parties involved.

Case Laws

In the seminal case of, the Supreme Court of India delivered a landmark judgment reaffirming the significance of judicial discretion and contextual analysis in cases concerning allegations of cruelty under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). The ruling elucidated the imperative to eschew a mechanistic application of the law and instead advocate for a nuanced understanding of the circumstances surrounding each complaint filed by wives against their husbands.

The Court’s elucidation on contextual analysis and evidentiary scrutiny underscored the judiciary’s pivotal role as a guardian of individual rights and liberties. By emphasizing the need for a holistic assessment of matrimonial discord cases, the judgment established a precedent calling upon courts to exercise discretion and discernment in adjudication.

This case law serves as a beacon, illuminating the path toward a legal framework characterized by fairness, equity, and compassion. It underscores the judiciary’s commitment to ensuring the protection of individual rights within the ambit of the law, and its recognition of the complex dynamics inherent in familial relationships.

These judgments, while providing clarity and guidance to the legal fraternity, also underscored the imperative of balancing justice with compassion and fairness. As India continues its journey towards progress and development, the Supreme CourtтАЩs call for a nuanced approach in Section 498A IPC cases resonates as a clarion call for fairness, empathy, and justice. By upholding these principles, the judiciary reaffirms its commitment to serving as the custodian of the rule of law, ensuring that the rights and dignity of all individuals are upheld and protected.

The significance of dying declarations as evidence in cases under Section 498A found resonance in the judgment of Rajaram v. State of M.P. (2022 SCC Online SC 1733). Here, the Court underscored the importance of meticulous scrutiny and evaluation of evidence, particularly in cases where the accused’s liberty hangs in the balance. The judgment reaffirmed the principle that justice must not only be done but must also be seen to be done, necessitating a meticulous examination of the facts and circumstances of each case.

The Supreme Court’s pronouncement in the case of Kahkashan Kausar v. State of Bihar (2022 SCC Online SC 162) resonated with significant implications for cases involving allegations against the husband’s relatives. The Court emphasized the necessity of specific allegations of dowry demand against the husband’s relatives, cautioning against the indiscriminate initiation of criminal trials. This ruling not only delineated the contours of liability but also underscored the profound impact of legal proceedings on the accused, advocating for prudence and restraint in the administration of justice.

Similarly, in the case of Meera v. State (2022 SCC Online SC 31), the Supreme Court delivered a decisive judgment underscoring the gravity of cruelty perpetrated by one woman against another, particularly in the context of a daughter-in-law and mother-in-law relationship. The Court unequivocally stated that offenses committed by a woman against another woman merit no leniency, emphasizing the need for stringent adherence to the principles of justice and equality before the law.

The question of evidence, often central to cases under Section 498A, received meticulous scrutiny in the judgment of Surendran v. State of Kerala (2022 SCC Online SC 621).

The Court reiterated the principle that while testimony from related or interested witnesses cannot be summarily dismissed, it warrants scrutiny and evaluation. This emphasis on evidentiary rigor underscores the judiciary’s commitment to ensuring a fair and impartial adjudication process, free from undue influence or prejudice.

The Court’s decision draws upon a robust jurisprudential framework, informed by several seminal case laws that have shaped its approach to matters of domestic discord and matrimonial disputes. Cases such as Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar (2014), K. Srinivas Rao v. D.A. Deepa (2013), and Sushil Kumar Sharma v. Union of India (2005) have provided crucial insights into the complexities of adjudicating cases under Section 498A, emphasizing the importance of fair investigation, evidentiary rigor, and safeguards against false allegations.

The Supreme Court reaffirms its commitment to upholding the principles of fairness, equity, and justice in the realm of matrimonial law. The ruling serves as a timely reminder to legal practitioners and law enforcement agencies to exercise prudence and discretion in dealing with complaints lodged under Section 498A, ensuring that justice is pursued diligently and impartially

Conclusion

In conclusion, the recent directive from the Supreme Court of India regarding the application of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) in matrimonial disputes marks a significant step towards ensuring fairness and justice in legal proceedings. By cautioning against the mechanical application of the law and emphasizing the need for nuanced analysis of each case, the Court has reaffirmed its commitment to upholding the principles of equity and due process.

This directive serves as a reminder that while allegations of harassment or ill-treatment must be taken seriously, not every marital discord constitutes the offense of “cruelty” under Section 498A. It underscores the importance of judicial discretion and contextual examination in adjudicating such cases, thereby preventing the indiscriminate use of legal provisions that could potentially lead to injustice

  • The freshest ruling from the Supreme Court highlights a vital element of legal elucidation in scenarios regarding marital disagreements. In a momentous verdict, the Court stressed that not every situation of disagreement or vexation among spouses qualifies as the transgression of “cruelty” pursuant to Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC).

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Marital Rape: A crime undefined

Sarita Gupta
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Marital Rape: A crime undefined

Marital Rape

Consent is a word which is a requisite element for a relationship between a man and a woman. Consent whether between the business partners or between a husband and wife or between the parties to the contract. The meaning is to give permission to do that thing. It is an important essential condition as specified under Section 13&14 of the Indian Contract Act, of 1872. In this article, we will deal with the relationship between husband and wife.

Marriage is the legally or formally recognized union of two people as partners in a personal relationship. There simply is no concept of consent in most marriages. The fact that a man is married to a woman in a majority of cases is seen as a license to sex, anytime, anywhere, regardless of the woman’s consent. In India, it is believed that marriage is a sacrament.

In todayтАЩs growing economy, we can see the number of increasing cases of violence or sexual assault against women. One thinks that there is no difference between rape and marital rape. But itтАЩs high time; we need to understand the difference between these two.

What is rape?

Rape is a criminal offence as specified under Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code. It states that any man who forcefully commits sexual intercourse with any woman without her consent or if she is a minor is said to be committing an offence under Section 375 of IPC.

What is Marital Rape?

In simple words, unwilling sexual intercourse with your wife is said to be marital rape. Surprisingly, In India Marital Rape is an exception to Section 375 of IPC, i.e., Rape. India remains one of 36 countries where it is not a crime for a man to rape a woman тАФ as long as they are married.

Difference

By carefully analyzing the picture, we can spot the difference between rape and marital rape. Rape is rape whether itтАЩs committed by her own husband. ThatтАЩs why consent is most important element in a relationship of marriage.

In India, it is believed that marriage is a sacrament, meaning a lifelong relationship between a man and a woman. There is a thin line of difference between the two. It is a superstitious belief that if a woman gives consent for marriage then she is also given consent for sexual intercourse. Just taking seven rounds of fire, doesnтАЩt mean that a girl has consented to do sex.

Consequences Of Marital Rape

A woman who is raped by her husband, not only suffers physically but also emotionally or psychologically as well. Emotionally, in the sense, that she doesnтАЩt have any support or no one is there to understand his feelings. Even though she doesnтАЩt have any companion to share her feelings with and the one who is expected, he only raped her.

A woman also has psychological consequences. Some of the short-term effects of marital rape are anxiety, shock, fear, stress, etc. Some of the long-term effects are depression and problems in future in establishing relationships or trusting people. Mostly it is found that victim of marital rape suffers long-term consequences.

Misconception

There are some reasons that are continuously shielding a man to rape his own wives. Let us discuss those misconceptions.

AGAINST INDIAN CULTURE

The government in India thinks that most of the people are illiterate, poor, and conservative they think that man cannot rape his wife as good Indian wives always gave consent to their husband. It is argued that if the government criminalizes marital rape, then there is a high chance of falling down of marriage. This is a misconception in the mind of the government of India. This, itтАЩs a violation of the fundamental rights of women.

IMPLIED OR PERPETUAL CONSENT

This is one of the major misconceptions that while getting married, a woman is given her consent. Marriage and marital rape are two different concepts, just taking an oath around the fire doesnтАЩt mean that a woman has consented to sex. Traditionally it is believed like this. If we see, Eight out of Ten married women are facing marital rape. But they didnтАЩt raise their voices as society thinks like that. If they try to raise their voices, they are simply boycotted by society.

WOMEN WILL MISUSE ANY LAW AGAINST MARITAL RAPE

This is also argued by the government that if they criminalize marital rape then there might be a high chance of misuse of the law by women. But it is the work of the judiciary to wipe out the misuse of law. On one hand, we blindly trust our government and judiciary as they are the protectors of the nations but on the other hand, the government and judiciary mistrust their citizens through these kinds of arguments.

This is quite evident that these all are only lame excuses for a male-dominated society.

Legal Position In India

Recently, the Gujarat High Court in its recent judgment on┬атАЬNimesh Bhai Bharatbhai Desai vs. State of GujaratтАЭ while examining the law relating to sexual offences, observed that the husbands need to be reminded that marriage is not a licence to forcibly rape their wives at all.

However, in another case under the Delhi High Court, the Court completely dismissed the petition to criminalize marital rape, maintaining that the drafting of the law is the function of the legislature rather than the court, while the court is more concerned with the interpretation of the law than its drafting.

This is how our Judiciary is working. A citizen blindly trusts the judiciary and this is how our judiciary is working.

The Union Government itself dismisses to criminalize the Marital Rape.

One should need a law when rights get violated, so itтАЩs a serious matter of fact that a woman who is married and forced into sex by her husband is not a crime. This is a serious issue which our government has to take seriously and take action by CRIMINALIZING MARITAL RAPE as soon as possible.

In the light of above discussion, some of the reforms can be made:

  • The Parliament has to consider this issue very strictly and must criminalize Marital Rape as an offence under IPC.
  • The punishment should be the same as Rape under section 375 of IPC as marital rape is as grave an offence as rape.
  • The fact that the parties involved are married should not make the sentence lighter.
  • Marital Rape should be made grounds to obtain a decree for divorce, and accordingly, marital laws in India should be amended taking into consideration the concept of marital rape.

Recommendation by the Law Commission of India in the 205th Law Commission report-тАЬIt further prays that the Union of India should be directed to amend the laws relating to age of marriage and minimum age of giving sexual consent so that both conform with each other. The petition prays for deletion of the explanation under Section 375 IPC under which marital rape is not considered rape unless the wife is less than 15 years of age.тАЭ

Conclusion

At present only remedy available to women against non-consensual sexual intercourse is given under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act or Section 498-A of the IPC on the cruelty against a wife by the husband or a husbandтАЩs relatives. But still, Marital Rape is not considered as an offence in India. Several Countries like Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Norway and the Czech Republic, have already criminalized marital rape.

In India, Section 375 criminalizes Rape but made an exception of marital rape as no offence. But on the contrary, an exception to a husband is a violation of Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution of India. No woman is required to sacrifice his right to life with dignity. Article 14 provides equality but the non-criminalization of marital rape itself discriminates between married couples by giving exceptions to the husband to rape his wife. So no law should intervene in any rights and if so, it should be abolished.

There is a need to educate and create awareness among the society about the concept of marital rape. The way of thinking of the society should be changed. It only changes when our legislature and judiciary accept this as a crime. As far as conservatism is concerned, we have a live example in front of us of the decriminalization of Same-Sex Marriage or maybe be LGBTQ community. Most of these laws are made by our law system so why not criminalization of Marital rape.

тАЬWhen that person who you entrusted your life rapes you, it isnтАЩt the physical or sexual assault; it is a betrayal of the very core element of marriage, that is, Trust.тАЭ

! Rape is a Rape whether it is committed by her own husband!

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Smt. Indira Nehru Gandhi vs Shri Raj Narain

Sommya Kashyap
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Smt. Indira Nehru Gandhi vs Shri Raj Narain

The case of Indira Nehru Gandhi vs. Raj Narain emerged from a complex political and legal context in India during the 1970s. Indira Gandhi, a prominent political figure and the Prime Minister of India faced allegations of corruption and electoral malpractices. Raj Narain, her opponent in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections from the Raebareli constituency, filed an election petition challenging her victory. The High Court of Allahabad, in its judgment on June 12, 1975, found Indira Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractices, including the use of government resources and officials to aid her campaign. The court declared her election void and disqualified her from holding any elected office for six years.

FACTS OF THE CASE

In the case of Smt. Indira Nehru Gandhi vs. Shri Raj Narain, several constitutional and legal issues were examined, particularly related to the Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment) Act of 1975. Here are the key points and arguments presented by different justices:

  1. Unconstitutionality of Article 329-A(4): Justices Khanna, Mathew, and Chandrachud held that Clause (4) of Article 329-A, introduced by the 39th Amendment Act of 1975, is unconstitutional. Justice Khanna emphasized that Clause (4) violates the principle of free and fair elections, which is essential to democracy and forms part of the basic structure of the Constitution. He argued that it abolishes the forum for election disputes without providing an alternative, thus denying the right and remedy to challenge election validity. Justice Mathew highlighted that the amendment bypasses the judicial process in resolving election disputes, which is integral to ensuring fairness and legality in elections.
  2. Equality and Rule of Law: The concept of equality before the law and the rule of law were central to the discussions. The justices debated whether the amendments violated principles of equality enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution and undermined the rule of law. Justice Chandrachud argued that the amendments damaged the rule of law by excluding judicial review and creating arbitrary provisions.
  3. Judicial Power and Constitutional Amendments: The case delved into the nature of judicial power and its relationship with constitutional amendments. Justice Ray emphasized that the constituent power, while sovereign, must adhere to constitutional provisions and cannot bypass legal norms or the separation of powers.
  4. Validation of Elections: The amendments aimed to validate certain elections but raised concerns about the legality of such validation without proper legal procedures and judicial review. Justices highlighted that retrospective validation through legislative means must align with constitutional principles and legal norms.

Overall, the case reflected a deep engagement with constitutional principles, the separation of powers, and the role of judicial review in safeguarding democratic processes and the rule of law.

ISSUES OF THE CASE

  1. Parliamentary Authority: Does Parliament have the inherent authority to retrospectively amend electoral laws, including definitions and provisions related to candidate eligibility and corrupt practices?
  2. Judicial Intervention: To what extent should the judiciary intervene in matters of electoral legislation, especially when retrospective amendments are in question? How does this balance with the principle of legislative supremacy?
  3. Constitutional Compliance: Are the retrospective amendments consistent with constitutional mandates, particularly regarding the conduct of free and fair elections, equality of candidates, and protection of democratic principles?
  4. Impact on Electoral Integrity: Do retrospective amendments, especially those related to facilities provided to incumbents during election campaigns, potentially compromise the fairness and integrity of electoral processes?

ARGUMENTS FROM BOTH SIDES

Arguments from Respondents (Supporting Retrospective Amendments)

  1. Legislative Authority: The respondents argue that Parliament holds the supreme legislative authority and has the power to enact retrospective amendments to electoral laws. This authority is essential for maintaining the coherence and effectiveness of the electoral framework.
  2. Addressing Ambiguities: They contend that retrospective amendments are necessary to address legal ambiguities and loopholes in existing electoral statutes. By clarifying definitions and procedures retrospectively, the amendments contribute to a more robust and clear electoral process.
  3. Presumed Legislative Understanding: Respondents highlight that members of Parliament are presumed to have a deep understanding of electoral processes and the need for legislative measures that promote democracy and electoral fairness. This understanding legitimizes the parliamentary authority to make retrospective changes.
  4. Improving Electoral Practices: They argue that retrospective amendments serve the purpose of improving electoral practices, ensuring fair elections, and strengthening democratic principles. These changes are seen as proactive steps to enhance the integrity and transparency of the electoral system.

Arguments from Plaintiffs (Opposing Retrospective Amendments)

  1. Constitutional Concerns: Plaintiffs raise constitutional concerns regarding the retrospective nature of the amendments. They argue that such amendments may infringe upon constitutional principles, including the separation of powers and the role of the judiciary in safeguarding democratic norms.
  2. Fairness and Equality: Plaintiffs contend that retrospective amendments could lead to unfair advantages for certain candidates or parties, disrupting the level playing field necessary for democratic elections. This could undermine the fairness and integrity of the electoral process.
  3. Need for Judicial Scrutiny: They emphasize the importance of judicial scrutiny in assessing the constitutionality of laws, particularly retrospective amendments. The judiciary’s role is crucial in preventing potential abuses of legislative power and ensuring adherence to constitutional values and democratic norms.
  4. Protection of Democratic Principles: Plaintiffs argue that the retrospective application of amendments should not compromise democratic principles such as free and fair elections, equality of candidates, and the protection of fundamental rights. Any changes to electoral laws must align with these core democratic values.

These arguments from both the respondents and plaintiffs provide a balanced perspective on the debate surrounding retrospective amendments to electoral laws. The respondents focus on legislative authority, clarity in electoral processes, and the presumed understanding of lawmakers, while the plaintiffs emphasize constitutional concerns, fairness, the role of the judiciary, and the protection of democratic principles

FINDING OF THE COURT

The findings of the court in the case involving retrospective amendments to electoral laws would depend on the specific arguments presented by both sides and the legal principles applied. However, based on the arguments provided earlier, here are potential findings that the court might make:

  1. Constitutional Validity of Retrospective Amendments: The court may find that Parliament indeed has the authority to enact retrospective amendments to electoral laws. This finding could be based on the principle of legislative supremacy and the understanding that lawmakers are best suited to address legal ambiguities and improve electoral practices.
  2. Balancing Legislative Power and Judicial Oversight: The court might emphasize the need for a balance between legislative power and judicial oversight. While acknowledging Parliament’s authority, the court may assert its role in ensuring that retrospective amendments do not violate constitutional principles, particularly those related to democracy, fairness, and the separation of powers.
  3. Impact on Electoral Integrity: In assessing the impact of retrospective amendments, the court may consider arguments related to electoral integrity and fairness. It could find that while retrospective amendments can address legal uncertainties, they must not compromise the fundamental principles of free and fair elections, equal opportunities for candidates, and the protection of democratic norms.
  4. Judicial Review of Amendments: The court may assert its authority to review the constitutionality of retrospective amendments, highlighting the importance of judicial scrutiny in upholding constitutional values. This finding could reinforce the judiciary’s role as a check on potential abuses of legislative power and the safeguarding of democratic principles.
  5. Clarity and Certainty in Electoral Laws: Finally, the court may stress the importance of clarity and certainty in electoral laws. It could suggest that retrospective amendments should be clear, consistent with constitutional provisions, and aimed at improving the electoral process without creating unfair advantages or disruptions to democratic practices.

These findings would reflect a nuanced understanding of the complex issues surrounding retrospective amendments to electoral laws, balancing the legitimate authority of Parliament with the imperative of upholding constitutional principles and democratic ideals.

JUDGMENT OF THE COURT

The judgment in the case of Indira Nehru Gandhi vs. Raj Narain revolved around the constitutional validity of the Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1975, which introduced amendments related to election disputes and judicial review. The respondent argued that these amendments violated the basic structure of the Constitution by undermining judicial review and democratic principles. Specifically, the challenge focused on the Representation of the People (Amendment) Act, 1974, and the Election Laws (Amendment) Act, 1975, contending that these Acts damaged the fundamental structure by exempting certain offices, like Prime Minister and Speaker, from election laws, judicial review, and the rule of law.┬а

The judgment delved into the essence of judicial review as an integral part of democratic governance and the separation of powers, considering the judiciary’s role in ensuring free and fair elections, especially concerning election disputes and the validity of elected officials. It also explored the authority of Parliament to legislate on election matters, including the power to determine election disputes and the validity of elections, raising questions about the extent to which Parliament could limit or override judicial review in election-related cases. References were made to international practices, such as in the United States and Australia, where election disputes are handled differently by legislative bodies and the judiciary, discussing the concept of political questions versus justiciable matters concerning the adjudication of election contests and the role of courts. Overall, the judgment underscored the delicate balance between legislative authority, judicial review, and democratic principles in the context of election laws and disputes, emphasizing the importance of upholding constitutional values while ensuring effective governance and electoral integrity.

AFTERMATH OF THE CASE

The aftermath of the case was multifaceted. Indira Gandhi faced a period of political turmoil, including widespread protests and calls for her resignation. The constitutional amendment stirred debates about the separation of powers, the independence of the judiciary, and the balance of authority between the legislature and the judiciary. Ultimately, the Supreme Court of India heard the case and delivered its judgment on November 7, 1975. The Court upheld the validity of the constitutional amendment but set aside the High Court’s decision to disqualify Indira Gandhi, allowing her to remain in office as Prime Minister. This judgment had far-reaching implications for Indian democracy, setting precedents regarding the scope of judicial review, electoral laws, and the powers of elected officials.

CONCLUSION┬а

The case culminated in a significant legal and political outcome. However, before the Supreme Court could hear the appeal, the government enacted the Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1975, which sought to limit the judiciary’s powers in matters related to the election of the Prime Minister and Speaker of the Lok Sabha. This amendment had direct implications for Indira Gandhi’s case, as it aimed to nullify the High Court’s judgment and prevent judicial interference in similar future cases.

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Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013)

Sommya Kashyap
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Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013)

Introduction

The case of Lily Thomas v. Union of India revolves around the question of whether Members of Parliament or the Legislature should be disqualified after being convicted in a criminal case. Two petitions were filed before the Supreme Court, highlighting the increasing number of elected officials with criminal cases pending against them and the lack of legislative action to address this issue. The petitioners argued that the provision allowing a convicted legislator to continue serving until the disposal of their appeal is unconstitutional, as it contradicts the uniform disqualifications set forth in the Constitution. On the other hand, the state argued that such provisions are necessary due to the high frequency of acquittals in higher courts. The Court’s decision in this case has significant implications for the integrity of the electoral process and the accountability of elected representatives in India.

Background of the case┬а

The case concerns the disqualification of Members of Parliament or the Legislature following criminal convictions, adjudicated by a two-judge bench comprising Justices A.K. Patnaik and S.J. Mukhopadhaya in 2013. Two petitions were brought before the Supreme Court, one by Advocate Lily Thomas and the other by Lok Prahari, represented by its General Secretary S.N. Shukla, both addressing the issue of whether MLAs or MPs should face disqualification upon criminal conviction.

The phenomenon of criminalization within politics strikes at the foundation of democratic governance, as it directly impacts the integrity of electoral processes. Statistics reveal a marked increase in the presence of individuals with criminal records within state and central legislatures since IndiaтАЩs independence.

According to the Association for Democratic Reforms, the percentage of MPs with pending criminal cases rose from 24% in 2004 to 43% in the 2019 Parliament. This trend underscores a concerning trajectory for the future of democratic governance in the country. The Parliament’s failure to enact legislation establishing guidelines for penalties related to legislators with criminal backgrounds or convictions is emblematic of entrenched interests within the legislative body. Presently, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 governs the disqualification of elected legislators.

Sections 8(1), 8(2), and 8(3) of the RP Act stipulate that a legislator convicted of specified offenses shall be disqualified from holding office.┬а However, Section 8(4) of the Act provides a provision whereby disqualification, upon conviction, is deferred for a period of three months or until the disposal of any appeals or revision applications.

It is this provision, Section 8(4), which is the subject of challenge in the writ petitions under consideration. Hence, the Court was tasked with determining whether Section 8(4) is ultra vires to constitutional provisions. The Anti-defection law, initially enacted in 1985 and subsequently reinforced in 2002, is pertinent to this context. The 52nd Amendment to the Constitution introduced the 10th Schedule, outlining the procedure for the disqualification of legislators.

FACTS OF THE CASE

  • Two writ petitions were filed before the Supreme Court by Advocate Lily Thomas and Lok Prahari, represented by its General Secretary S.N. Shukla. The petitions raised the question of whether Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) or Members of Parliament (MPs) should face disqualification upon criminal conviction.
  • The criminalization of politics has seen a significant rise in the number of elected officials with pending criminal cases.
  • Statistics from the Association for Democratic Reforms indicated a steady increase in the percentage of MPs with pending criminal cases over the years.
  • The Representation of the People Act, 1951 governs the disqualification of elected legislators. Sections 8(1), 8(2), and 8(3) of the RP Act provide for disqualification upon conviction for specified offenses.
  • However, Section 8(4) of the Act allows for the deferment of disqualification, providing a three-month window or until the disposal of any appeals or revision applications. The petitioners challenged the constitutionality of Section 8(4) before the Supreme Court.
  • The court was tasked with determining whether Section 8(4) violated constitutional provisions. The Anti-defection law, enacted in 1985 and reinforced in 2002, is relevant to this context, particularly the provisions outlined in the 10th Schedule of the Constitution regarding the disqualification of legislators.

ISSUES

  1. Did the Supreme Court consider whether Parliament had the legislative power to enact Section 8(4) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951?
  2. How did the Court interpret Articles 102(1)(e) and 191(1)(e) of the Constitution in relation to Parliament’s authority to make laws providing disqualifications for membership of Parliament or State Legislatures?
  3. Was the validity of Section 8(4) of the RP Act, 1951 assessed in light of its consistency with constitutional provisions?
  4. Did the Court examine whether there was consistency in the criteria for disqualification for both elections and continued membership in Parliament or State Legislatures?
  5. Were the constitutional provisions regarding the automatic vacancy of a seat upon the disqualification of a Member of Parliament or State Legislature analyzed by the Court?
  6. What was the impact of the Court’s judgment on existing cases involving sitting Members of Parliament or State Legislatures affected by Section 8(4)?

ARGUMENT┬а

PetitionersтАЩ Arguments

  • Senior Advocate Fali S. Nariman, representing the petitioners, argued that the opening words of clause (1) of Articles 191 and 102 of the Indian Constitution clearly indicate that the same disqualifications apply to individuals being chosen as members of either House of Parliament or the State Assembly/Legislative Council.
  • They emphasized that there should be uniformity in disqualifications for individuals seeking election and those already serving as members, as stated in the Constitution.
  • Citing the Supreme Court’s constitutional bench judgment in Election Commission of India v. Saka Venkat Rao, they highlighted that the court had previously ruled that disqualifications were the same for both standing in an election and continuing as a member.
  • The petitioners urged the court to strike down Section 8(4) as ultra vires, arguing that Parliament lacks the legislative power to enact such a provision.

StateтАЩs Arguments

  • Represented by Assistant Solicitor General (ASG) Mr. Siddharth Luthra, the state contended that the validity of Section 8(4) had already been upheld by the constitutional bench of the Supreme Court in K. Prabhakaran v. P. Jayarajan.
  • The ASG argued that the high frequency of acquittals in higher courts justifies the necessity for Section 8(4), which allows for the delay in the disqualification of sitting members of Parliament or State Legislatures pending appeals or revisions.
  • By providing for such a provision, Parliament aimed to address the issue of potential wrongful disqualifications due to frequent acquittals in appellate courts.

OBSERVATION OF THE COURT

  • The Constitution intended to establish uniform disqualifications for individuals seeking election and those already serving as members of either House of Parliament or the State Assembly/Legislative Council.
  • Articles 102(1)(e) and 191(1)(e) of the Constitution confer power on Parliament to enact laws regarding disqualifications for both prospective and sitting members.
  • Articles 101(3)(a) and 190(3)(a) expressly prohibit Parliament from deferring the date on which disqualifications come into effect for sitting members.

FINDING OF THE COURT

  • The effect of disqualification under Articles 102(1) and 190(1) of the Constitution results in the automatic vacation of the member’s seat.
  • Parliament cannot enact a provision, such as Section 8(4) of the Act, to defer the date of disqualification for sitting members.
  • Parliament exceeded its powers conferred by the Constitution by enacting Section 8(4) of the Act.

JUDGEMENT┬а

  1. The Court holds that Parliament has the power to enact laws establishing uniform disqualifications for both prospective and sitting members.
  2. Section 8(4) of the Act is declared ultra vires the Constitution as it goes against the express limitations set forth in Articles 101(3)(a) and 190(3)(a).
  3. The declaration made by the Court in this judgment will not affect sitting members who were previously protected by Section 8(4) until the date of pronouncement of this judgment.
  4. However, if any sitting member is convicted of offenses mentioned in Section 8(1), (2), or (3) after this judgment, their membership will not be saved by Section 8(4), irrespective of any pending appeals or revisions against the conviction or sentence.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the Supreme Court declared Section 8(4) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 ultra vires the Constitution. The Court emphasized that Parliament lacks the power to enact provisions that defer the date of disqualification for sitting members, as it contradicts the uniform disqualifications mandated by the Constitution. This decision marks a crucial step towards ensuring the integrity of the electoral process and holding elected representatives accountable for their actions. Additionally, the Court’s ruling provides clarity on the constitutional limitations of Parliament’s legislative powers regarding the disqualification of legislators convicted in criminal cases

Also Read:┬а
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
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Disqualification from election on Conviction

Sommya Kashyap
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0
Disqualification from election on Conviction

Disqualification on Conviction under the Representation of PeoplesтАЩ Act, 1951

Abstract

The Representation of the People Act, 1951, lays down provisions regarding the disqualification of individuals convicted of certain offences from contesting elections in India. Under Section 8(1) of the Act, various offences, ranging from bribery to promoting enmity between different groups, lead to disqualification. This article provides an overview of the statutory provisions, duration of disqualification, impact on electoral participation, the role of the Election Commission, and policy considerations surrounding these disqualifications.

Introduction

Recent judicial activism, notably reflected in Supreme Court judgments on electoral law, has brought about significant changes, particularly in the disqualifications of lawmakers. The striking down of Section 8(4) of the Representation of People Act, which allowed convicted Members of Parliament or State Legislatures to continue their membership, highlights a shift towards greater accountability in Indian politics. This move comes amidst growing concerns over the criminalization of politics and corrupt electoral practices. Former Supreme Court Justice Markandey Katju emphasized the role of judicial activism in transforming Indian society, particularly in combating feudal influences.

Qualifications for Election to the Lok Sabha:

To contest as a candidate for election to the Lok Sabha, individuals must meet certain qualifications as outlined in the Constitution of India and related laws:

  1. Citizenship: Candidates must be citizens of India.
  2. Oath or Affirmation: They must make and subscribe to an oath or affirmation as prescribed by the Election Commission.
  3. Age: Candidates must be at least twenty-five years old on the date of scrutiny of nominations.
  4. Reserved Seats: For seats reserved for Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes:
  • Scheduled Castes: Candidates must be a member of any Scheduled Caste and an elector for any parliamentary constituency.
  • Scheduled Tribes: Candidates must be a member of any Scheduled Tribe and an elector for any parliamentary constituency, with variations for different states and territories.
  • General Seats: Candidates contesting general seats must meet the basic qualifications without specific reservation criteria.

Qualifications for Election to a Legislative Assembly

To contest as a candidate for election to a Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) of a State or Union Territory, individuals must meet specific qualifications:

  1. Citizenship: Candidates must be citizens of India.
  2. Oath or Affirmation: They must make and subscribe to an oath or affirmation as prescribed by the Election Commission.
  3. Age: Candidates must be at least twenty-five years old on the date of scrutiny of nominations.
  4. Reserved Seats: For seats reserved for Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes:
  • Scheduled Castes: Candidates must be a member of any Scheduled Caste and an elector for any assembly constituency.
  • Scheduled Tribes: Candidates must be a member of any Scheduled Tribe and an elector for any assembly constituency, with variations for different states and territories.
  1. General Seats: Candidates contesting general seats must meet the basic qualifications without specific reservation criteria.

Disqualifications for Election

Disqualifications for candidates seeking election to the Lok Sabha or Legislative Assemblies include constitutional and statutory provisions:

  1. Constitutional Disqualifications
  • Holding Office of Profit: Candidates must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any State, with exceptions outlined in the Parliament (Prevention of Disqualification) Act, 1959.
  • Other criteria include not being an undischarged insolvent, not being a citizen of India, and not being disqualified under any law made by Parliament.
  1. Statutory Disqualifications

┬аThe Representation of the People Act, 1951 lists various disqualifications, including:

  • Conviction of specific offenses such as promoting enmity between groups, bribery, rape-related offenses, cruelty towards women, corruption, terrorism, and others.
  • Conviction under laws related to hoarding, profiteering, adulteration of food or drugs, dowry prohibition, and more.
  • Disqualification for election expenses misconduct, dismissal for corruption or disloyalty, contracts with the government, holding certain positions in government companies, and failure to lodge election expense accounts.

These disqualifications can result in immediate disqualification or disqualification for a specified period, as determined by the Election Commission or legislative bodies.

Disqualification on Conviction under the Representation of the People Act, 1951

Under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, individuals can be disqualified from contesting elections if convicted of certain offences. These disqualifications include convictions for offenses such as promoting enmity between different groups, bribery, rape, cruelty towards women, corruption, terrorism, and more. Additionally, convictions under laws related to hoarding, profiteering, adulteration of food or drugs, dowry prohibition, and other specified offences can also lead to disqualification.

If an individual is convicted of any of these offences, they are disqualified from contesting elections for a period of six years from the date of conviction. If the conviction includes a prison sentence, the disqualification continues for an additional six years from the date of release. In cases where a person is convicted of multiple offences in a single trial, the cumulative length of imprisonment determines the disqualification period.

It’s important to note that these disqualifications are statutory and are enforced by the Election Commission. They aim to uphold the integrity of the electoral process and ensure that individuals with criminal records or involvement in specified offences do not hold public office.

Statutory provisions for Disqualification on Conviction under the Representation of PeoplesтАЩ Act, 1951

Section 8(1) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951

This provision outlines the disqualification of individuals convicted of certain offences. These offences include:

  • Promoting enmity between different groups.
  • Bribery.
  • Rape-related offenses.
  • Cruelty towards women.
  • Corruption.
  • Terrorism.
  • Various other offences are listed under this section.

Duration of Disqualification

  • ┬аIf convicted of any offence listed in Section 8(1), the individual is disqualified from contesting elections for a period of six years from the date of conviction.
  • If the conviction results in a prison sentence, the disqualification period extends for an additional six years from the date of release.

Additional Offences and Disqualifications

  • Apart from the offences listed under Section 8(1), convictions under other specified laws can also lead to disqualification, as outlined in the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
  • These offences include offences related to hoarding, profiteering, adulteration of food or drugs, dowry prohibition, and more.

Enforcement

The Election Commission oversees the enforcement of these disqualifications, ensuring that individuals convicted of specified offences are not allowed to contest elections for the prescribed period.

Purpose

These disqualifications aim to maintain the integrity of the electoral process by preventing individuals with criminal records or involvement in specified offences from holding public office or contesting elections.

By adhering to these statutory provisions, the electoral system aims to uphold transparency, accountability, and fairness in the democratic process.

Scope of Offences

  • The offences listed under Section 8(1) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, cover a wide range of criminal activities, including those that undermine the democratic process, such as bribery, corruption, and promoting enmity between different groups.
  • These provisions aim to ensure that individuals convicted of serious crimes or offenses against the public interest are not eligible to hold public office or contest elections.

Impact on Electoral Participation

  • Disqualifications resulting from convictions under the Act can have significant implications for individuals seeking to participate in the electoral process.
  • It restricts their ability to stand as candidates in elections, thereby limiting their political involvement and representation.

Legal Process and Appeals

Individuals who are convicted of offences under the Act have the option to appeal their convictions through the legal process.

However, until their convictions are overturned, or the disqualification period expires, they remain ineligible to contest elections.

Role of the Election Commission

  • The Election Commission plays a crucial role in enforcing the disqualifications prescribed under the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
  • ┬аIt ensures that individuals who are disqualified from contesting elections are not included on the electoral rolls or allowed to participate in the electoral process.

Public Perception and Accountability

  • The implementation of these disqualifications underscores the importance of accountability and integrity in the electoral system.
  • It reflects public expectations for elected representatives to uphold ethical standards and adhere to the rule of law.

Policy Considerations

  • Discussions surrounding disqualifications under the Act often involve debates on the balance between protecting the integrity of the electoral process and allowing individuals opportunities for rehabilitation and reintegration into society.
  • Policymakers may consider amendments or revisions to the Act to address emerging challenges and ensure that the electoral system remains fair and transparent.

CASE LAWS

Sanjay Dutt v. State of Maharashtra (through CBI):

Issue: Whether conviction and sentence under the Arms Act disqualify from contesting elections under Section 8(3) of the RP Act, 1951, and if suspension of conviction is possible.

Judgement: Conviction under the Arms Act led to disqualification, and suspension of conviction was denied due to the serious nature of the offence and specific disqualification provision of the RP Act.

Navjot Singh Sidhu v. State of Punjab:

Issue: Whether resignation from Parliament and desire to contest again warrant suspension of conviction under Section 8(3) of the RP Act, 1951.

Judgement: Suspension of conviction was granted based on the appellant’s commitment to ethical standards in public service and desire to contest elections.

Lily Thomas v. UOI:

Issues: Constitutional validity of Section 8(4) of RP Act, 1951; exclusive legislative authority of Parliament on disqualifications; deferral of disqualifications by Parliament.

Judgement: Section 8(4) was declared unconstitutional; Parliament has exclusive authority on disqualifications; Parliament cannot defer disqualifications to prevent vacancies.

Public Interest Foundation v. UOI:

Issue: Whether the Court can prescribe disqualifications beyond constitutional and legislative provisions.

Judgement: The Court cannot introduce new grounds for disqualification beyond those specified in the Constitution and legislation; directions issued for transparency in candidate disclosures.

Saritha S Nair v. Hibi Eden:

Issue: Disqualification under Section 8(3) of RP Act, 1951, based on suspended sentence.

Judgement: Disqualification is determined by the date of conviction and release, not just suspension of sentence.

These cases highlight the interplay between criminal convictions, disqualification from elections, and judicial discretion in suspending convictions, emphasizing the importance of legal provisions, constitutional validity, and ethical standards in public office.

Conclusion

Disqualification on conviction under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, serves as a crucial mechanism to uphold the integrity of India’s electoral system. By preventing individuals convicted of serious offences from contesting elections, the Act aims to maintain public trust, ensure accountability, and uphold ethical standards among elected representatives. However, as discussions on rehabilitation and reintegration continue, policymakers must carefully balance the need for accountability with considerations of fairness and rehabilitation. Ultimately, the effective implementation of these disqualifications is essential to safeguarding the democratic principles upon which India’s electoral process is founded

Also Read:┬а
Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
How To Send A Legal Notice In India

Environment Protection Act, 1986

Shreya Sharma
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0
Environment Protection Act, 1986

What is the environment?

The environment refers to the conditions and surroundings in which living organisms, including humans, exist. It includes both natural and human-made elements such as air, water, land, plants, animals, buildings, roads, cities, and industrial facilities.

The environment can be broadly classified into two main components. Firstly, the natural environment, which consists of non-human aspects of the Earth, such as oceans, rivers, mountains, forests, and wildlife, provides essential resources for life such as clean air, fresh water, fertile soil, and biodiversity.

Secondly, the built environment is made up of human-made or anthropogenic elements, including buildings, roads, and cities. It reflects human activities and interventions in the natural landscape and plays a significant role in shaping the quality of life and environmental sustainability.

The environment is a complex and interconnected system, where various components interact and influence each other. Human activities such as industrialization, urbanization, agriculture, and consumption have significant impacts on the environment, including pollution, habitat destruction, climate change, and depletion of natural resources.

Protecting and preserving the environment is crucial for sustaining life on Earth and ensuring the well-being of present and future generations. This involves promoting sustainable practices, conserving biodiversity, reducing pollution, mitigating climate change, and fostering harmony between human societies and the natural world.

Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1986 is a crucial legislation in India that aims to protect and improve the quality of the environment while preventing environmental degradation. Enacted by the Parliament of India, the EPA came into force on November 19, 1986. It provides the legal framework for environmental protection and conservation efforts across the country.

Here are the key features and provisions of the Environment Protection Act of 1986:

1. Objective: The primary objective of the EPA is to protect and improve the quality of the environment, while preventing hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants, and property.

2. Pollution Control Authorities: The EPA establishes pollution control boards at both the central and state levels. These authorities are responsible for implementing the provisions of the act, regulating pollution, monitoring environmental quality, and enforcing environmental standards.

3. Regulatory Measures: The act empowers the central government to take measures to control and abate environmental pollution, including air pollution, water pollution, and noise pollution. It provides for the regulation of emissions and discharges from industries, vehicles, and other sources.

4. Environmental Standards: The EPA authorizes the central government to prescribe environmental quality standards for various pollutants and pollutants-emitting industries. These standards serve as benchmarks for pollution control measures and compliance by industries and other stakeholders.

5. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The act mandates the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment reports for certain projects, activities, or industries that are likely to have significant environmental impacts. The EIA process helps assess the potential environmental consequences of proposed projects and inform decision-making.

6. Penalties and Offences: The EPA prescribes penalties, including fines and imprisonment, for contravention of its provisions, non-compliance with environmental standards, and causing environmental pollution or degradation. It empowers pollution control authorities to take legal action against offenders and enforce environmental regulations.

7. Public Participation: The act encourages public participation and awareness in environmental protection efforts. It provides for public consultation and involvement in decision-making processes related to environmental clearance, pollution control, and conservation measures.

8. Environmental Protection Fund: The EPA allows for the establishment of an Environmental Protection Fund to finance environmental conservation and restoration projects and initiatives.

Overall, the Environment Protection Act of 1986 is a cornerstone of environmental governance in India, providing a legal framework for addressing environmental challenges, promoting sustainable development practices, and ensuring the well-being of present and future generations.

Importances┬а

The Environment Protection Act of 1986 is a seminal piece of legislation that serves as a lynchpin in India’s environmental governance framework. This Act provides a comprehensive legal framework for the protection and improvement of the environment, outlining the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, including the government, industries, and individuals, in safeguarding the environment.

The Act has several significant objectives. Firstly, it aims to control and mitigate pollution. It empowers the government to take measures for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental pollution. This includes regulating emissions, effluents, and hazardous waste discharge from industries, as well as vehicular emissions and noise pollution in urban areas.

Secondly, the Act enables the regulation of hazardous substances and chemicals to prevent their adverse effects on human health and the environment. It empowers the government to regulate the handling, storage, transportation, and disposal of such substances. This ensures that hazardous substances are managed in a way that reduces the risks of accidents, leaks, and spills that can harm the environment and public health.

Thirdly, the Act mandates the conduct of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for projects and activities that are likely to have a significant impact on the environment. The EIA process evaluates the potential environmental impacts of proposed projects and activities and identifies mitigation measures to minimize adverse effects. This ensures that developmental projects are implemented in an environmentally sustainable manner.

Fourthly, the Act provides for the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations. It stipulates penalties for non-compliance and environmental offenses, thereby ensuring accountability and deterrence. This includes empowering the government to take legal action against polluters and violators of environmental laws.

Fifthly, the Act encourages public participation in environmental decision-making processes. It provides mechanisms for public consultation and involvement in matters concerning environmental protection and conservation. This ensures that the public’s concerns and perspectives are taken into account in environmental decision-making.

Sixthly, the Act enables India to fulfill its international obligations and commitments regarding environmental protection and sustainable development. It aligns the country’s laws with global environmental standards and conventions, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Finally, the Act contributes to the conservation of natural resources by regulating activities that impact natural resources such as water, air, and land. This includes regulating the use of groundwater, protecting wildlife habitats, and conserving forests and other ecosystems.

In summary, the Environment Protection Act of 1986 is a crucial legislation that plays a vital role in promoting sustainable development, protecting ecosystems, and safeguarding public health in India. Its comprehensive legal framework covers a wide range of environmental issues, from pollution control and hazardous substances regulation to public participation and international obligations. Therefore, it is a cornerstone of India’s environmental governance framework.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Environment Protection Act of 1986 stands as a landmark legislation in India’s efforts to safeguard its environment and promote sustainable development. By providing a robust legal framework for pollution control, regulation of hazardous substances, environmental impact assessment, enforcement, and public participation, the Act addresses critical aspects of environmental conservation and management. It underscores the importance of responsible stewardship of natural resources and the need for collective action to mitigate environmental degradation. As we navigate the challenges of the modern world, the Act remains instrumental in guiding policies and practices toward a more environmentally sustainable and equitable future.

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Harnessing AI: Transforming Legal Practice for Lawyers

Shreya Sharma
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0
Harnessing AI: Transforming Legal Practice for Lawyers

What does AI mean?

Artificial Intelligence, or AI, opens up a whole new world of possibilities for computer systems. With AI, machines can simulate human intelligence processes like learning, reasoning, and self-correction. AI encompasses a wide range of technologies and approaches, including machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, and robotics. With AI, computer systems can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as understanding natural language, recognizing patterns, making decisions, and solving problems. AI presents an exciting opportunity to expand the capabilities of computer systems and revolutionize the way we interact with technology.

How does AI work?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the way we approach various problems and applications. The following is an overview of how AI works and why it’s so important:

1. Data Collection: AI systems require large amounts of data to learn from. High-quality data is crucial for the performance of AI models.

2. Data Preprocessing: Preparing data for AI algorithms is essential. This step includes tasks such as removing noise, handling missing values, and standardizing the format of the data.

3. Training: AI models are trained on labeled data, and during training, they learn patterns and relationships in the data. The goal is to minimize the difference between the model’s predictions and the actual outcomes.

4. Algorithm Selection: Choosing the right algorithm is crucial for optimal performance. For example, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are commonly used for image recognition, while recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are used for sequential data.

5. Model Evaluation: The AI model is evaluated on a separate set of data called the validation set. This step helps assess the model’s performance and identify any issues such as overfitting.

6. Deployment: After successful training and validation, the AI model is deployed to perform its intended task. This could involve integrating the model into a software application, a web service, or an embedded device, depending on the specific use case.

7. Feedback Loop: AI systems incorporate a feedback loop where they continuously learn and improve over time. This involves retraining the model with new data or fine-tuning its parameters based on user feedback and performance metrics.

AI combines data, algorithms, and iterative processes to enable machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. AI is transforming various domains, including healthcare, finance, and transportation. Ongoing research and development are driving innovations in AI, leading to exciting possibilities for the future.

How AI is helping the Legal Field?

The legal field is experiencing a transformation thanks to AI technology. AI-powered solutions are changing the way legal professionals work, enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and productivity. Here are some key ways in which AI is revolutionizing the legal field:

1. Legal Research: AI-powered tools analyze vast amounts of legal documents, cases, statutes, and regulations to provide comprehensive research results quickly. Legal professionals can save significant time and effort in conducting legal research, making it easier to find relevant precedents, case law, and legal arguments.

2. Document Review and Due Diligence: AI algorithms can review and analyze large volumes of legal documents, contracts, and agreements to identify key clauses, potential risks, and inconsistencies. This process, known as document review or due diligence, is crucial in legal proceedings, mergers and acquisitions, and contract management.

3. Contract Analysis and Management: AI-based contract analysis tools extract important information from contracts, such as key terms, obligations, and deadlines. These tools identify potential risks and discrepancies, streamline contract review processes, and improve compliance with contractual obligations.

4. Predictive Analytics: AI algorithms analyze historical legal data to predict case outcomes, litigation strategies, and legal trends. Predictive analytics tools assist lawyers in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of their cases, making informed decisions, and developing effective legal strategies.

5. Legal Writing and Drafting: AI-powered software assists lawyers in drafting legal documents, pleadings, briefs, and other written materials. These tools provide suggestions, templates, and language recommendations based on similar cases and legal precedents, helping lawyers produce high-quality documents more efficiently.

6. E-Discovery: AI technologies, such as machine learning and natural language processing, are used in e-discovery processes to sift through electronic documents, emails, and other digital data for relevant information in legal proceedings. AI-powered e-discovery tools reduce the time and cost associated with manual document review and discovery.

7. Compliance and Regulatory Monitoring: AI systems help companies and legal departments stay compliant with evolving regulations and monitor changes in the legal landscape. AI-powered compliance tools analyze regulatory updates, track changes in laws and regulations, and provide alerts and recommendations to ensure compliance.

8. Virtual Legal Assistants: AI-powered virtual assistants help lawyers manage their schedules, organize documents, and perform administrative tasks more efficiently. These virtual assistants handle routine inquiries, schedule appointments, and automate repetitive tasks, allowing lawyers to focus on more complex and strategic aspects of their work.

Overall, AI is transforming the legal field by automating routine tasks, improving decision-making processes, and enabling legal professionals to work more effectively and strategically. The potential benefits of AI technology are clear, and as these technologies continue to evolve, they are expected to play an increasingly vital role in reshaping the future of law practice.

Can artificial intelligence replace the legal profession?

While AI is changing many aspects of the legal profession and making legal services more efficient and effective, it is unlikely that AI will completely replace the legal profession shortly. Here are some reasons why:

1. Complexity of Legal Issues: The practice of law involves addressing complex legal issues that often require nuanced interpretation, strategic thinking, and human judgment. While AI can help with tasks like legal research, document review, and predictive analytics, it may struggle with understanding the broader context, emotional nuances, and ethical considerations involved in legal matters.

2. Human Interaction and Advocacy: Legal proceedings often involve human interaction, negotiation, and advocacy skills that AI cannot replicate. Lawyers play critical roles in counseling clients, representing them in court, and advocating for their interests. The ability to understand clients’ needs, build relationships, and communicate effectively is fundamental to the legal profession.

3. Ethical and Regulatory Considerations: The legal profession is governed by ethical rules and regulations that require lawyers to uphold professional standards, maintain confidentiality, and act in the best interests of their clients. While AI can assist lawyers in various tasks, ultimate responsibility and accountability lie with human legal professionals.

4. Unforeseen Legal Challenges: Legal cases and issues can be unpredictable and may require creative problem-solving and adaptability, which are inherent human capabilities. AI systems may struggle to handle novel or unforeseen legal challenges that require innovative approaches and contextual understanding.

5. Public Perception and Trust: The legal profession is built on trust, credibility, and the confidence of clients and the public. While AI can provide valuable support to legal professionals, there may be concerns about relying on AI systems for critical legal decisions and advice. Human lawyers offer reassurance and confidence through their expertise, experience, and personal interactions.

6. Role of Human Judgment: Legal decision-making often involves exercising judgment, weighing competing arguments, and considering the broader implications of legal outcomes. While AI can provide data-driven insights and recommendations, human judgment remains essential in evaluating complex legal issues and making informed decisions.

In summary, AI is transforming the legal profession by improving its capabilities, but it is unlikely to replace human lawyers entirely. Instead, AI will continue to enhance the work of legal professionals by providing tools and technologies that improve efficiency, accuracy, and access to justice while preserving the critical role of human judgment, advocacy, and ethical responsibility in the practice of law.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while AI is revolutionizing various aspects of the legal profession and bringing about significant changes in how legal services are delivered, it is unlikely to completely replace human lawyers in the foreseeable future. AI technologies offer valuable tools and capabilities that enhance efficiency, accuracy, and access to legal information, but they cannot fully replicate the complex human skills, judgment, and advocacy that are integral to the practice of law.

The legal profession involves dealing with intricate legal issues, human interactions, ethical considerations, and unforeseen challenges that require human expertise and judgment. While AI can assist in tasks such as legal research, document review, and predictive analytics, ultimate responsibility and accountability lie with human legal professionals.

Moreover, the legal profession is built on trust, credibility, and the confidence of clients and the public. Human lawyers offer reassurance and confidence through their expertise, experience, and personal interactions, which cannot be replaced by AI systems alone.

Therefore, the future of the legal profession is likely to involve a symbiotic relationship between human lawyers and AI technologies. AI will continue to augment the work of legal professionals, offering tools and technologies that improve efficiency, accuracy, and access to justice while preserving the essential role of human judgment, advocacy, and ethical responsibility in the practice of law.

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Bangalore water supply case

Shreya Sharma
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0
Bangalore water supply case

Case Name:

Bangalore Water Supply & Sewerage Board v. A. Rajappa (Bangalore Water Supply Case)

Equivalent citations:

1978 AIR 548, 1978 SCR (3) 207

Bench:

Beg, M. Hameedullah (Cj), Chandrachud, Y.V., Bhagwati, P.N., Krishnaiyer, V.R. & Tulzapurkar, V.D., Desai, D.A. & Singh, Jaswant

Facts:

In the Bangalore Water Supply Case, the Appellant Board, responsible for providing essential amenities to citizens, imposed fines on its employees for instances of misconduct, and penalties were successfully recovered. However, the employees were not satisfied with the disciplinary actions taken against them and initiated Claims Application No. 5/72 under Section 33C(2) of the Industrial Disputes Act, asserting that the actions taken against them had transgressed the principles of natural justice.

The Appellant Board raised a preliminary objection before the Labour Court, arguing that the Board, being a statutory body, does not qualify as an тАЬindustryтАЭ as defined under section 2(j) of the Industrial Disputes Act. Consequently, it was argued that the employees were not classified as тАЬworkmen,тАЭ thus challenging the jurisdiction of the Labour Court to adjudicate upon the employeesтАЩ claim. The Labour Court, however, ruled in favor of the employees despite the BoardтАЩs objection. Subsequently, the Appellant Board filed two Writ Petitions тАУ Nos. 868 and 2439 of 1973 тАУ before the Karnataka High Court in Bangalore, challenging the Labour Court’s decision. The Appellant Board argued that it was not an “industry” under the definition of section 2(j) and, therefore, the Labour Court did not have the jurisdiction to adjudicate the employees’ claims.

The Division Bench of the High Court dismissed the Appellant Board’s petitions, stating that the Board indeed falls under the definition of an “industry” as stated in section 2(i) of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947. Thus, the Appellant Board’s argument that it was not an industry under the Act and that the Labour Court did not have jurisdiction to decide the employees’ claim was rejected.

Issue:

The main issue in the Bangalore Water Supply case was whether a statutory body that provided essential basic amenities to citizens could be classified as an “industry” under the definition provided in Section 2(j) of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947. This case aimed to determine if such activities could be subject to the legal provisions governing industrial disputes. The crux of the matter was whether the services the body provided were considered regal (sovereign) functions or not.

Judgment:

In the Bangalore Water Supply Case, a seven-judge panel of the Supreme Court examined the scope of “industry.” The majority decision, endorsed by five judges with two judges dissenting, overruled previous judgments such as Safdarjung Solicitors’ case, Gymkhana, Delhi University, Dhanrajgiri Hospital, and Cricket Club of India. The court upheld the principles established in the Hospital Mazdoor Shabha and Indian Standards Institution cases, following the precedents set by the Banerji and Corporation of City of Nagpur cases. The Bench in the Bangalore Water Supply Case was made up of seven esteemed judges: Beg M. Hameedullah (CJ), Chandrachud Y.V., Bhagwati P.N., Krishna Iyer V.R., Tulzapurkar V.D., Desai D.A. and Singh Jaswant.

The purpose of the case was to delineate the extent of “industry.” The concept of the “triple test” emerged from this case, serving as a benchmark for assessing the legality of various establishments.

The “Triple Test” is a set of criteria used in the Bangalore Water Supply Case to determine whether an establishment can be classified as an industry. The test consists of three factors:

1. Systematic activity
2. Cooperation between employer and employee
3. Activity related to the production of goods and services that fulfill human needs It’s important to note that religious services or other activities related to spiritual fulfillment are not considered industries.

The profit motive is also irrelevant in this context. The focus of the triple test is on the functional aspects of the relationship between employer and employee. Philanthropic activities do not disqualify an establishment from being classified as an industry. If an undertaking satisfies all the criteria listed above, it can be labeled as an “industry” under section 2(j) of the Industrial Disputes Act, of 1947.

Bangalore Water Supply Summary

The Bangalore Water Supply case involved a seven-judge Supreme Court panel that defined тАЬindustry.тАЭ It introduced the тАЬtriple test,тАЭ focusing on systematic activity, employer-employee cooperation, and goods/services production for human needs. Philanthropic activities or lack of profit motive were irrelevant.

The ruling encompassed organized activities meeting these criteria as тАЬindustry,тАЭ irrespective of trade/business, and extended to professions, clubs, educational institutions, etc. The тАЬdominant nature testтАЭ determined an undertakingтАЩs nature based on the most significant department. Sovereign functions were exempted and separable industry units within sovereign departments fell within Section 2(j) of the Industrial Disputes Act.

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Rights of undertrial prisoners in India
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рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 | Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Shreya Sharma
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рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 | Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо 1955 рднрд╛рд░рддреАрдп рд╕рдВрд╕рдж рдХрд╛ рдПрдХ рд╡рд┐рдзрд╛рдпреА рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╣реИ рдЬрд┐рд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд╣рд┐рдВрджреБрдУрдВ рдФрд░ рдЙрди рд▓реЛрдЧреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдорд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рдзрд░реНрдо, рдмреМрджреНрдз рдзрд░реНрдо, рдЬреИрди рдзрд░реНрдо рдпрд╛ рд╕рд┐рдЦ рдзрд░реНрдо рдореЗрдВ рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд░реНрддрд┐рдд рд╣реЛ рдЧрдП рд╣реИрдВред рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╣рд┐рдВрджреБрдУрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рдкреНрд░рдЪрд▓рд┐рдд рд╡рд┐рд╡рд┐рдз рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрд╣рд┐рддрд╛рдмрджреНрдз рдФрд░ рдПрдХреАрдХреГрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрдкрдиреНрди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╕рдорд╛рдкреНрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рддрдВрддреНрд░ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдкреНрд░рдпрд╛рд╕ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 рдХреЗ рдкреНрд░рдореБрдЦ рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рдиреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВ:

1. рдкреНрд░рдпреЛрдЬреНрдпрддрд╛: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЙрди рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдкрд░ рд▓рд╛рдЧреВ рд╣реЛрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рдзрд░реНрдо, рдмреМрджреНрдз рдзрд░реНрдо, рдЬреИрди рдзрд░реНрдо рдФрд░ рд╕рд┐рдЦ рдзрд░реНрдо рдХрд╛ рдкрд╛рд▓рди рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред

2. рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдиреБрд╖реНрдард╛рдкрди: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдПрдХ рд╡реИрдз рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рдирд┐рд░реНрдзрд╛рд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рдкрд╛рддреНрд░рддрд╛ рдорд╛рдирджрдВрдб, рд╕рдорд╛рд░реЛрд╣ рдФрд░ рдкрдВрдЬреАрдХрд░рдг рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХрддрд╛рдПрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред

3. рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреА рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рдЖрдпреБ, рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рдХреНрд╖рдорддрд╛, рдирд┐рд╖рд┐рджреНрдз рд░рд┐рд╢реНрддреЗ, рдПрдХ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣, рдФрд░ рдмрд╣реБрдд рдХреБрдЫ рдЬреИрд╕реА рд╢рд░реНрддреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рд░реНрджрд┐рд╖реНрдЯ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

4. рд╢реВрдиреНрдп рдФрд░ рд╢реВрдиреНрдпрдХрд░рдгреАрдп рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╢реВрдиреНрдп рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ (рдЬреЛ рд╢реБрд░реВ рд╕реЗ рд╣реА рдЧреИрд░рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рд╣реИрдВ) рдФрд░ рд╢реВрдиреНрдпрдХрд░рдгреАрдп рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ (рд╡реЗ рдЬреЛ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рджреНрд╡рд╛рд░рд╛ рд░рджреНрдж рдХрд┐рдП рдЬрд╛рдиреЗ рддрдХ рд╡реИрдз рд╣реИрдВ) рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рдЕрдВрддрд░ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

5. рд╡реИрд╡рд╛рд╣рд┐рдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рдмрд╣рд╛рд▓реА: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╡реИрд╡рд╛рд╣рд┐рдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рдмрд╣рд╛рд▓реА рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рд╕реЗ рдкрддрд┐-рдкрддреНрдиреА рд╡реИрд╡рд╛рд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕рд╣рд╡рд╛рд╕ рдХреА рдмрд╣рд╛рд▓реА рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдореЗрдВ рдпрд╛рдЪрд┐рдХрд╛ рджрд╛рдпрд░ рдХрд░ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред

6. рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдЕрд▓рдЧрд╛рд╡: рдЬреЛрдбрд╝реЗ рдХреБрдЫ рдкрд░рд┐рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдЕрд▓рдЧрд╛рд╡ рдХреА рдорд╛рдВрдЧ рдХрд░ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ, рдЬреЛ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рднрдВрдЧ рдирд╣реАрдВ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдмрд▓реНрдХрд┐ рдЙрдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдЕрд▓рдЧ рд░рд╣рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рджреЗрддрд╛ рд╣реИред

7. рддрд▓рд╛рдХ: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рддрд▓рд╛рдХ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЖрдзрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░реВрдкрд░реЗрдЦрд╛ рддреИрдпрд╛рд░ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рд╡реНрдпрднрд┐рдЪрд╛рд░, рдХреНрд░реВрд░рддрд╛, рдкрд░рд┐рддреНрдпрд╛рдЧ, рджреВрд╕рд░реЗ рдзрд░реНрдо рдореЗрдВ рд░реВрдкрд╛рдВрддрд░рдг рдФрд░ рдмрд╣реБрдд рдХреБрдЫ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИред рддрд▓рд╛рдХ рдЖрдкрд╕реА рд╕рд╣рдорддрд┐ рд╕реЗ рдорд╛рдВрдЧрд╛ рдЬрд╛ рд╕рдХрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдпрд╛ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдзреНрдпрдо рд╕реЗ рд▓рдбрд╝рд╛ рдЬрд╛ рд╕рдХрддрд╛ рд╣реИред

8. рднрд░рдг-рдкреЛрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рдЧреБрдЬрд╛рд░рд╛ рднрддреНрддрд╛: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рддрд▓рд╛рдХ рдпрд╛ рдЕрд▓рдЧрд╛рд╡ рдХреА рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐ рдореЗрдВ рдкрддрд┐-рдкрддреНрдиреА рдФрд░ рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рднрд░рдг-рдкреЛрд╖рдг рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

9. рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЛрдВ рдХреА рд╣рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд: рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рддрд▓рд╛рдХ рдпрд╛ рдЕрд▓рдЧрд╛рд╡ рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рдореЗрдВ рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЛрдВ рдХреА рд╣рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд рдФрд░ рд╕рдВрд░рдХреНрд╖рдХрддрд╛ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрдмреЛрдзрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

10. рд╕рд╣рд╛рдпрдХ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рд╕рдВрдкрддреНрддрд┐ рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░, рдЙрддреНрддрд░рд╛рдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рд╣реИред

11. рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЕрдВрддрд░рдзрд╛рд░реНрдорд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХрд╛ рдПрдХ рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓реНрдк рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬреЛ рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1954 рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдзреНрдпрдо рд╕реЗ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреБрдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рдзрд░реНрдо рдХреЗ рдмрд╛рд╣рд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рджреЗрддрд╛ рд╣реИред

рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд░реНрддрдиреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд╕ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрдмреЛрдзрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 рдореЗрдВ рдХрдИ рдмрд╛рд░ рд╕рдВрд╢реЛрдзрди рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓рд╛ рдПрдХ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╣реИ, рдЬреЛ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╕рдореБрджрд╛рдп рдХреЗ рднреАрддрд░ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзреЛрдВ, рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдФрд░ рджрд╛рдпрд┐рддреНрд╡реЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рд░реВрдкрд░реЗрдЦрд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреА рдЕрдирд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реНрдпрддрд╛рдПрдВ

рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рдзрд░реНрдо рдореЗрдВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рд╕рдмрд╕реЗ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рдФрд░ рдкрд╡рд┐рддреНрд░ рд╕рдВрд╕реНрдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╕реЗ рдПрдХ рдорд╛рдирд╛ рдЬрд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдзрд░реНрдо рдХреЗ рджрд╕ рд╕рдВрд╕реНрдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╕реЗ рдЕрдВрддрд┐рдо рд╣реИ, рдЬреЛ рдЙрди рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЙрддреНрдерд╛рди рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рд╕рдВрдиреНрдпрд╛рд╕реА рдирд╣реАрдВ рдмрдирдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рдмреБрдирд┐рдпрд╛рджреА рд╢рд░реНрдд рдпрд╣ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╕рдорд╛рд░реЛрд╣ рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╣реЛрдиреЗ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдПред

1955 рдХреЗ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдореЗрдВ рд╡рд┐рд╢рд┐рд╖реНрдЯ рд╢рд░реНрддреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдкрд░рд┐рднрд╛рд╖рд┐рдд рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬрд┐рдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдХрд┐рд╕реА рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рд╡реИрдз рдорд╛рдиреЗ рдЬрд╛рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкреВрд░рд╛ рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЬрд╛рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдПред рдпреЗ рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рд╕реВрдЪреАрдмрджреНрдз рд╣реИрдВред рд╣рд╛рд▓рд╛рдБрдХрд┐, рд▓реАрд▓рд╛ рдЧреБрдкреНрддрд╛ рдмрдирд╛рдо рд▓рдХреНрд╖реНрдореА рдирд╛рд░рд╛рдпрдг рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рдореЗрдВ, рд╕реБрдкреНрд░реАрдо рдХреЛрд░реНрдЯ рдиреЗ рдорд╛рдирд╛ рдХрд┐ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 рдореЗрдВ рдЙрд▓реНрд▓рд┐рдЦрд┐рдд рд╕рднреА рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рдЕрдирд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реНрдп рдирд╣реАрдВ рд╣реИрдВред рдпрд╣ рдзреНрдпрд╛рди рд░рдЦрдирд╛ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдХреЗ рдлреИрд╕рд▓реЗ рдиреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреА рд╡реНрдпрд╛рдЦреНрдпрд╛ рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╛рдиреНрд╡рдпрди рдореЗрдВ рдХреБрдЫ рд▓рдЪреАрд▓рд╛рдкрди рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд┐рдпрд╛, рдЬрд┐рд╕рд╕реЗ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЕрдзрд┐рдХ рд╕реВрдХреНрд╖реНрдо рджреГрд╖реНрдЯрд┐рдХреЛрдг рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рдорд┐рд▓реАред

рд╡реИрдз рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╢рд░реНрдд

1. рдПрдХрдкрддреНрдиреАрддреНрд╡

рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (i) рдмрд╣реБрд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдФрд░ рдмрд╣реБрдкрддрд┐ рдкреНрд░рдерд╛ рдкрд░ рд░реЛрдХ рд▓рдЧрд╛рддреА рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╣рд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╢рд╛рджреА рдХреЗ рд╕рдордп рдХрд┐рд╕реА рднреА рдкрдХреНрд╖ рдХреЗ рдкрд╛рд╕ рдЬреАрд╡рд┐рдд рдЬреАрд╡рдирд╕рд╛рдереА рдирд╣реАрдВ рд╣реЛрдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдПред рдЗрд╕ рд╢рд░реНрдд рдХреА рд╡рд┐рдлрд▓рддрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 11 рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рдЕрдорд╛рдиреНрдп рдХрд░ рджреЗрдЧреАред рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рдЕрд▓рд╛рд╡рд╛, рдкрд╛рд░реНрдЯреА рдЖрдИрдкреАрд╕реА рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 494 рдФрд░ 495 рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рджреНрд╡рд┐рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрддреНрддрд░рджрд╛рдпреА рд╣реЛрдЧреАред

рднреЛрдЧрджреА рдХрдиреНрдирдмрд╛рдмреВ рдмрдирд╛рдо рд╡реБрдЧреНрдЧрд┐рдирд╛ рдкрд╛рдпрджрд╛рдорд╛ рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рддрдерд╛ рдпрдореБрдирд╛ рдЕрдирдВрддрд░рд╛рд╡ рдЕрдзрд╡ рдП рдмрдирд╛рдо рд░рд╛рдгрд╛рддреНрд░рд╛рдУ рд╢рд┐рд╡рд░рд╛рд╡ рдЕрдзрд╡ рдФрд░ рдПрдПрдирдЖрд░ рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ, рд╢реАрд░реНрд╖ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдиреЗ рдорд╛рдирд╛ рдХрд┐ рдкрд╣рд▓реА рд╢рд╛рджреА рдХреЗ рдЕрд╕реНрддрд┐рддреНрд╡ рдХреЗ рджреМрд░рд╛рди, рджреВрд╕рд░реА рд╢рд╛рджреА рдЕрдорд╛рдиреНрдп рд╣реИред

2. рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рд╣реИрдВ

рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (ii) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд, рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд╕рдордп рдХреЛрдИ рднреА рдкрдХреНрд╖ рдирд╣реАрдВ

(рдП) рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рд╡рд┐рдХреГрдд рджрд┐рдорд╛рдЧ рдХреЗ рдХрд╛рд░рдг рд╡реИрдз рд╕рд╣рдорддрд┐ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдЕрд╕рдорд░реНрде рд╣реИред

(рдмреА) рдЗрд╕ рддрд░рд╣ рдХреЗ рдпрд╛ рдЗрд╕ рд╣рдж рддрдХ рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╕реЗ рдкреАрдбрд╝рд┐рдд рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╡рд╣ рд╢рд╛рджреА рдФрд░ рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЗ рдкреИрджрд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЕрдпреЛрдЧреНрдп рд╣реИред

(рд╕реА) рдмрд╛рд░-рдмрд╛рд░ рдкрд╛рдЧрд▓рдкрди рдХреЗ рд╣рдорд▓реЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рд╢рд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реБрдЖ рд╣реИред

рдпрджрд┐ рдЗрдирдореЗрдВ рд╕реЗ рдХреЛрдИ рднреА рд╢рд░реНрдд рдкреВрд░реА рдирд╣реАрдВ рд╣реЛрддреА рд╣реИ рддреЛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 12 (1)(рдмреА) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдорд╛рдиреНрдп рд╣реИред рд╢реНрд░реАрдорддреА рдореЗрдВ. рдЕрд▓рдХрд╛ рд╢рд░реНрдорд╛ рдмрдирд╛рдо рдЕрднрд┐рд╖реЗрдХ рдЪрдВрджреНрд░ рд╢рд░реНрдорд╛ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рдореЗрдВ рдордзреНрдп рдкреНрд░рджреЗрд╢ рдЙрдЪреНрдЪ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд╛рд▓рдп рдиреЗ рдХрд╣рд╛ рдХрд┐ рдпрджрд┐ рдкрдХреНрд╖ рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рдХрд╛рд░рдг рдПрдХ рднреА рд╢рд░реНрдд рдпрд╛ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рдкреВрд░реА рд╣реЛрддреА рд╣реИрдВ рддреЛ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рд╢рд╛рджреА рдХреЛ рд░рджреНрдж рдХрд░ рд╕рдХрддреА рд╣реИред

3.┬а рдЙрдореНрд░

рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (iii) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд, рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд╕рдордп рджреВрд▓реНрд╣рд╛ рдФрд░ рджреБрд▓реНрд╣рди рдиреЗ 21 рд╡рд░реНрд╖ рдХреА рдЖрдпреБ рдкреВрд░реА рдХрд░ рд▓реА рд╣реИред рд╢рд░реНрдд рдХрд╛ рдЙрд▓реНрд▓рдВрдШрди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдкрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рд░рджреНрдж рдирд╣реАрдВ рд╣реЛрдЧрд╛ рдмрд▓реНрдХрд┐ рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 18 (рдП) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рдЕрдкрд░рд╛рдз рд╣реИ рдпрд╛рдиреА 2 рд╕рд╛рд▓ рддрдХ рдХрд╛ рд╕рд╛рдзрд╛рд░рдг рдХрд╛рд░рд╛рд╡рд╛рд╕ рдпрд╛ 1000/- рд░реБрдкрдпреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЬреБрд░реНрдорд╛рдирд╛ рдпрд╛ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВред

4. рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдз рдХреА рдирд┐рд╖рд┐рджреНрдз рдбрд┐рдЧреНрд░реА

рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (iv) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рд░рд┐рд╢реНрддреЗ рдХреА рдирд┐рд╖рд┐рджреНрдз рдбрд┐рдЧреНрд░реА рдХреЗ рднреАрддрд░ рдЖрдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрджрд┐ рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рдХреЛрдИ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рд╕рдВрдкрдиреНрди рд╣реЛрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рддреЛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 11 рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рд╢реВрдиреНрдп рд╣реЛрдЧрд╛ред рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рдЕрд▓рд╛рд╡рд╛, рдЗрд╕ рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЙрд▓реНрд▓рдВрдШрди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдкрд░ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 18 (рдмреА) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд 1 рдорд╣реАрдиреЗ рддрдХ рдХрд╛ рд╕рд╛рдзрд╛рд░рдг рдХрд╛рд░рд╛рд╡рд╛рд╕ рдпрд╛ 1000/- рдХрд╛ рдЬреБрд░реНрдорд╛рдирд╛ рдпрд╛ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рд╣реЛрдВрдЧреЗред

5. рд╕рдкрд┐рдгреНрдб рд╕рдореНрдмрдиреНрдз┬а

рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (v) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд, рд╕рдкрд┐рдВрдб рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдз рд░рдЦрдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдирд┐рд╖рд┐рджреНрдз рд╣реИ рдЬрдм рддрдХ рдХрд┐ рдХреЛрдИ рдкреНрд░рдерд╛ рди рд╣реЛ рдЬреЛ рдЙрдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдРрд╕рд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рджреЗрддреА рд╣реЛред рд╕рдкрд┐рдВрдбрд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрд░реНрде рд╣реИ рдПрдХ рдРрд╕рд╛ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐ рдЬрд┐рд╕реЗ рдЙрд╕рдХреЗ рддреАрди рдпрд╛ рдХрднреА-рдХрднреА рдЫрд╣ рдирд┐рдХрдЯрддрдо рд╡рдВрд╢реАрдп рдкреБрд░реБрд╖ рдкреВрд░реНрд╡рдЬреЛрдВ рдпрд╛ рд╡рдВрд╢рдЬреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╕реЗ рдХрд┐рд╕реА рдПрдХ рдХреЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдз рдореЗрдВ рдорд╛рдирд╛ рдЬрд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рдХреЛрдИ рднреА рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 11 рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рдЕрдорд╛рдиреНрдп рд╣реЛрдЧрд╛ рдФрд░ рдЗрд╕ рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЙрд▓реНрд▓рдВрдШрди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдкрд░ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 18 (рдмреА) рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд 1 рдорд╣реАрдиреЗ рддрдХ рдХрд╛ рд╕рд╛рдзрд╛рд░рдг рдХрд╛рд░рд╛рд╡рд╛рд╕ рдпрд╛ 1000/- рдХрд╛ рдЬреБрд░реНрдорд╛рдирд╛ рдпрд╛ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рд╣реЛ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред

рдРрддрд┐рд╣рд╛рд╕рд┐рдХ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ
рд╢реНрд░реА рдЬреАрддреЗрдиреНрджреНрд░ рдХреБрдорд╛рд░ рд╢рд░реНрдорд╛ рдмрдирд╛рдо рд░рд╛рдЬреНрдп

рдЗрд╕ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рдореЗрдВ, рд╢рд╛рджреА рджреЛ рдирд╛рдмрд╛рд▓рд┐рдЧ рдкрдХреНрд╖реЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рд╣реБрдИ рдереА рдЬреЛ рдкреНрдпрд╛рд░ рдореЗрдВ рдкрдбрд╝ рдЧрдП рдереЗ рдФрд░ рд╢рд╛рджреА рдХреЗ рдмрд╛рдж рднрд╛рдЧ рдЧрдП рдереЗред рд▓рдбрд╝рдХреА рдХреЗ рдкрд┐рддрд╛ рдиреЗ рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдХреЗ рд╕рдордХреНрд╖ рджрд▓реАрд▓ рджреА рдХрд┐ рдЙрдирдХреА рдмреЗрдЯреА рдФрд░ рдпрд╛рдЪрд┐рдХрд╛рдХрд░реНрддрд╛ рдЬрд┐рддреЗрдВрджреНрд░ рдХреБрдорд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рд╢рд╛рджреА рдЕрдорд╛рдиреНрдп рдереА рдХреНрдпреЛрдВрдХрд┐ рдЗрд╕рдиреЗ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 рдХреА рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (iii) рдХрд╛ рдЙрд▓реНрд▓рдВрдШрди рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рд╣реИред

рдирд┐рд░реНрдгрдп– рдЕрджрд╛рд▓рдд рдиреЗ рдпрд╣ рдЗрдВрдЧрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реБрдП рдХрд┐ рдзрд╛рд░рд╛ 5 (iii) рди рддреЛ рд╢реВрдиреНрдп рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдФрд░ рди рд╣реА рд╢реВрдиреНрдп рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд╛ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░ рд╣реИ, рдиреЗ рд░рд╛рдп рджреА рдХрд┐ рдирд╛рдмрд╛рд▓рд┐рдЧ рдЬреЛрдбрд╝рд╛ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдХрд┐рд╕реА рднреА рджрдмрд╛рд╡ рдХреЗ рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рдПрдХ рд╕рд╛рде рд░рд╣рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕реНрд╡рддрдВрддреНрд░ рд╣реИред

рдирд┐рд╖реНрдХрд░реНрд╖

1955 рдореЗрдВ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдорд┐рдд рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ рдПрдХ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рд░реАрддрд┐-рд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рдЬреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдкрд░рдВрдкрд░рд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдПрдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рдкрдХ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рдврд╛рдВрдЪреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдПрдХ рд╕рд╛рде рд▓рд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗрд╡рд▓ рдПрдХ рдирд┐рдЬреА рдорд╛рдорд▓рд╛ рдирд╣реАрдВ рд╣реИ, рдмрд▓реНрдХрд┐ рдПрдХ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕рдВрд╕реНрдерд╛ рднреА рд╣реИ, рдФрд░ рдЗрд╕рд▓рд┐рдП, рдпрд╣ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдореЗрдВ рдкреНрд░рд╡реЗрд╢ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рд╕реНрдкрд╖реНрдЯрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдкрд╣рд▓реБрдУрдВ рдХреЛ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд╛ рд╕рдорд╛рдкрди, рдкрддрд┐-рдкрддреНрдиреА рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рдЬрд┐рдореНрдореЗрджрд╛рд░рд┐рдпрд╛рдВ, рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЛ рд╕рдорд╛рдкреНрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рд░рдЦрд░рдЦрд╛рд╡, рд╣рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред рдпрд╣ рдПрдХ рд╡реИрдз рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╢рд░реНрддреЗрдВ рдирд┐рд░реНрдзрд╛рд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдХрд┐ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкрд╛рд░реНрдЯрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреА рдкрд╛рддреНрд░рддрд╛, рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреА рдЖрдпреБ рдФрд░ рд░рд┐рд╢реНрддреЗ рдХреА рдХреБрдЫ рдбрд┐рдЧреНрд░реА рдХрд╛ рдирд┐рд╖реЗрдзред

рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рдЕрд▓рд╛рд╡рд╛, рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд▓реИрдВрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ рдХреЗ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡ рдХреЛ рдкрд╣рдЪрд╛рдирддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдореЗрдВ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рдкрддрд┐-рдкрддреНрдиреА рдХреЛ рд╕рдорд╛рди рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдкрддрд┐/рдкрддреНрдиреА рдХреЗ рднрд░рдг-рдкреЛрд╖рдг рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░, рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЛрдВ рдХреА рдЕрднрд┐рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рдореГрддреНрдпреБ рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдорд▓реЗ рдореЗрдВ рдкрддрд┐/рдкрддреНрдиреА рдХреА рд╕рдВрдкрддреНрддрд┐ рдХреЛ рд╡рд┐рд░рд╛рд╕рдд рдореЗрдВ рдкрд╛рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреНрд░реВрд░рддрд╛, рд╡реНрдпрднрд┐рдЪрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рдкрд░рд┐рддреНрдпрд╛рдЧ рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдХреБрдЫ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдкрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рд╡рд┐рдШрдЯрди рдХрд╛ рднреА рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред

рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдмрджрд▓рддреЗ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рдорд╛рдирджрдВрдбреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдЬрд░реВрд░рддреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЕрдиреБрд░реВрдк рд╡рд┐рдХрд╕рд┐рдд рд╣реБрдЖ рд╣реИ, рдЬрдмрдХрд┐ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХреЗ рдореВрд▓ рд╕рд┐рджреНрдзрд╛рдВрддреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЕрднреА рднреА рд╕рдВрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рд░рдЦрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рд╣реИред рд╕рдорд╛рдЬ рдХреЗ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рд╡рд░реНрдЧреЛрдВ рдХреА рдЪрд┐рдВрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рджреВрд░ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЗрд╕рдореЗрдВ рдХрдИ рд╕рдВрд╢реЛрдзрди рд╣реБрдП рд╣реИрдВ, рдЬреИрд╕реЗ 1986 рдореЗрдВ рд╕рдВрд╢реЛрдзрди рдЬрд┐рд╕рдиреЗ рдЗрд╕ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреЛ рдмреМрджреНрдз, рдЬреИрди рдФрд░ рд╕рд┐рдЦреЛрдВ рд╕рд╣рд┐рдд рд╕рднреА рд╣рд┐рдВрджреБрдУрдВ рдкрд░ рд▓рд╛рдЧреВ рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ред

рдирд┐рд╖реНрдХрд░реНрд╖рддрдГ, рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1955 рдиреЗ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рд╕реНрдкрд╖реНрдЯрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рднреВрдорд┐рдХрд╛ рдирд┐рднрд╛рдИ рд╣реИред рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рд╕реНрд╡рддрдВрддреНрд░рддрд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реНрдерд┐рд░рддрд╛ рджреЛрдиреЛрдВ рдкрд░ рдЬреЛрд░ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рде, рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░рд┐рдХ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдХреА рдЖрдзрд╛рд░рд╢рд┐рд▓рд╛ рдХреЗ рд░реВрдк рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬреЛ рд╣рд┐рдВрджреВ рд╕рдореБрджрд╛рдп рдХреЗ рднреАрддрд░ рд╡реИрд╡рд╛рд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдкрд░рд┐рджреГрд╢реНрдп рдХреЛ рдЖрдХрд╛рд░ рджреЗрддрд╛ рд╣реИред

Rights of Labour рдордЬрджреВрд░реЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░

Shreya Sharma
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Rights of Labour рдордЬрджреВрд░реЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХрд╛ рдЕрд░реНрде

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдПрдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рдкрдХ рдЕрд╡рдзрд╛рд░рдгрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рдХреЛрдИ рднреА рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рдпрд╛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рд░реАрд░рд┐рдХ рдпрд╛ рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рдкреНрд░рдпрд╛рд╕ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛрддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдЙрд╕ рдорд╛рдирд╡реАрдп рдкреНрд░рдпрд╛рд╕ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрджрд░реНрднрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рдХрд┐рд╕реА рд▓рд╛рднрдХрд╛рд░реА рдЪреАрдЬрд╝ рдХрд╛ рдЙрддреНрдкрд╛рджрди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдХрд┐рд╕реА рдЧрддрд┐рд╡рд┐рдзрд┐ рдореЗрдВ рд▓рдЧрд╛рдпрд╛ рдЬрд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдХреБрд╢рд▓ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдореЗрдВ, рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ, рдРрд╕реЗ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рджреНрд╡рд╛рд░рд╛ рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рдЧрдпрд╛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬрд┐рдиреНрд╣реЛрдВрдиреЗ рдХрд┐рд╕реА рд╡рд┐рд╢рд┐рд╖реНрдЯ рдХреНрд╖реЗрддреНрд░ рдореЗрдВ рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖ рдЬреНрдЮрд╛рди, рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреБрднрд╡ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╕рд┐рдд рдХрд┐рдпрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖рдЬреНрдЮрддрд╛ рдЙрдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдЕрдкрдирд╛ рдХрд╛рдо рдХреБрд╢рд▓рддрд╛рдкреВрд░реНрд╡рдХ рдФрд░ рдкреНрд░рднрд╛рд╡реА рдврдВрдЧ рд╕реЗ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рд╕рдХреНрд╖рдо рдмрдирд╛рддреА рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рд╕реЗ рдЕрдХреНрд╕рд░ рдЙрдЪреНрдЪ рдЧреБрдгрд╡рддреНрддрд╛ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдЖрдЙрдЯрдкреБрдЯ рдорд┐рд▓рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдХреБрд╢рд▓ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рд░реНрдорд╛рдг, рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рджреЗрдЦрднрд╛рд▓, рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рдкреНрд░реМрджреНрдпреЛрдЧрд┐рдХреА рд╕рд╣рд┐рдд рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдЙрджреНрдпреЛрдЧреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдкрд╛рдП рдЬрд╛ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред

рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░, рдЬрд┐рдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рд░реВрдк рдореЗрдВ рднреА рдЬрд╛рдирд╛ рдЬрд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╣рд╛рд░, рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рдЧрд░рд┐рдорд╛ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рджрд┐рдП рдЧрдП рдореМрд▓рд┐рдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдп рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╕реНрд╡рд╕реНрде рдФрд░ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд╕рдВрдЧрдд рд╢реНрд░рдо рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдз рдмрдирд╛рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИрдВред рд╣рд╛рд▓рд╛рдБрдХрд┐ рд╡рд┐рд╢рд┐рд╖реНрдЯ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд░рд╛рд╖реНрдЯреНрд░реАрдп рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ, рдЕрдВрддрд░реНрд░рд╛рд╖реНрдЯреНрд░реАрдп рдорд╛рдирдХреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рд╕рдордЭреМрддреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░ рдкрд░ рднрд┐рдиреНрди рд╣реЛ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ, рдХреБрдЫ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдиреНрдп рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВ:
1. рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╡реЗрддрди рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рдХрд╛рдо рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╛ рдкреНрд░рд╛рдкреНрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдорд╛рдирдХ, рдУрд╡рд░рдЯрд╛рдЗрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдФрд░ рд╡реЗрддрди рдХрд╛ рд╕рдордп рдкрд░ рднреБрдЧрддрд╛рди рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИред рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╡реЗрддрди рдпрд╣ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рдЕрдкрдиреА рдмреБрдирд┐рдпрд╛рджреА рдЬрд░реВрд░рддреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдкреВрд░рд╛ рдХрд░ рд╕рдХреЗрдВ рдФрд░ рдПрдХ рд╕рднреНрдп рдЬреАрд╡рди рд╕реНрддрд░ рдмрдирд╛рдП рд░рдЦ рд╕рдХреЗрдВред
2. рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рд╢рд╛рд░реАрд░рд┐рдХ рдФрд░ рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рдХрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдг рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЦрддрд░реЛрдВ, рдЬреЛрдЦрд┐рдореЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдЦрддрд░реЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдореБрдХреНрдд рдПрдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рдФрд░ рд╕реНрд╡рд╕реНрде рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╡рд╛рддрд╛рд╡рд░рдг рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛ рджреБрд░реНрдШрдЯрдирд╛рдУрдВ рдФрд░ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рд╡рд╕рд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдмреАрдорд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдЙрдкрдХрд░рдг, рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рдкреНрд░реЛрдЯреЛрдХреЙрд▓ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЬрд┐рдореНрдореЗрджрд╛рд░ рд╣реИрдВред
3. рдПрд╕реЛрд╕рд┐рдПрд╢рди рдФрд░ рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдХреА рд╕реНрд╡рддрдВрддреНрд░рддрд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЯреНрд░реЗрдб рдпреВрдирд┐рдпрдиреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛрдиреЗ, рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рд╕рдВрдЧрдарди рдмрдирд╛рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рде рдмреЗрд╣рддрд░ рд╡реЗрддрди, рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐ рдФрд░ рд▓рд╛рднреЛрдВ рдкрд░ рдмрд╛рддрдЪреАрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдореЗрдВ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛрдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рд╕рдВрдШ рдХреА рд╕реНрд╡рддрдВрддреНрд░рддрд╛ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ рдЕрдкрдиреА рдЪрд┐рдВрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдард╛рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рд╣рд┐рддреЛрдВ рдХреА рд╡рдХрд╛рд▓рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рд╕рдХреНрд╖рдо рдмрдирд╛рддреА рд╣реИред
4. рдЧреИрд░-рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреА рдЬрд╛рддрд┐, рдЬрд╛рддреАрдпрддрд╛, рд▓рд┐рдВрдЧ, рдзрд░реНрдо, рдЖрдпреБ, рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓рд╛рдВрдЧрддрд╛, рдпрд╛ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд╕рдВрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖рддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреА рдкрд░рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд┐рдП рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдФрд░ рд╕рдорд╛рди рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╣рд╛рд░ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рдирд┐рдпреБрдХреНрддрд┐, рдкрджреЛрдиреНрдирддрд┐, рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╝рд╛ рдпрд╛ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рдкреНрд░рдерд╛рдУрдВ рдореЗрдВ рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рджреНрд╡рд╛рд░рд╛ рдирд┐рд╖рд┐рджреНрдз рд╣реИред
5. рдЖрд░рд╛рдо рдФрд░ рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕реНрд╡рд╕реНрде рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп-рдЬреАрд╡рди рд╕рдВрддреБрд▓рди рдмрдирд╛рдП рд░рдЦрдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдердХрд╛рд╡рдЯ рдпрд╛ рдЬрд▓рди рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рдШрдВрдЯреЗ, рд╡рд┐рд╢реНрд░рд╛рдо рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢ рдФрд░ рдЫреБрдЯреНрдЯреА рдХреЗ рд╕рдордп рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рд╢рд╛рд░реАрд░рд┐рдХ рдФрд░ рдорд╛рдирд╕рд┐рдХ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкрд░реНрдпрд╛рдкреНрдд рдЖрд░рд╛рдо рдФрд░ рдЦрд╝рд╛рд▓реА рд╕рдордп рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИред
6. рдиреМрдХрд░реА рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдиреМрдХрд░реА рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреБрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд╛рд░рдг рдХреЗ рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рдЕрдиреБрдЪрд┐рдд рдмрд░реНрдЦрд╛рд╕реНрддрдЧреА рдпрд╛ рд╕рдорд╛рдкреНрддрд┐ рдХреЗ рдЦрд┐рд▓рд╛рдл рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рдирд┐рдпреБрдХреНрддрд┐, рдкрджреЛрдиреНрдирддрд┐, рдЕрдиреБрд╢рд╛рд╕рди рдпрд╛ рд╕рдорд╛рдкреНрддрд┐ рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдирд┐рд░реНрдгрдп рд▓реЗрддреЗ рд╕рдордп рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдкреНрд░рдХреНрд░рд┐рдпрд╛рдУрдВ рдФрд░ рдорд╛рдирджрдВрдбреЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдкрд╛рд▓рди рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдПред
7. рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рд▓рд╛рдн рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдмреАрдорд╛, рдмреЗрд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░реА рд▓рд╛рдн, рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓рд╛рдВрдЧрддрд╛ рд▓рд╛рдн рдФрд░ рд╕реЗрд╡рд╛рдирд┐рд╡реГрддреНрддрд┐ рдкреЗрдВрд╢рди рд╕рд╣рд┐рдд рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрдХреНрд░рдореЛрдВ рддрдХ рдкрд╣реБрдВрдЪрдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрдХреНрд░рдо рдмреАрдорд╛рд░реА, рдмреЗрд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░реА рдпрд╛ рд╕реЗрд╡рд╛рдирд┐рд╡реГрддреНрддрд┐ рдХреА рдЕрд╡рдзрд┐ рдХреЗ рджреМрд░рд╛рди рд╡рд┐рддреНрддреАрдп рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕рд╣рд╛рдпрддрд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред
8. рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рдХреМрд╢рд▓, рдЬреНрдЮрд╛рди рдФрд░ рдХрд░рд┐рдпрд░ рдореЗрдВ рдЙрдиреНрдирддрд┐ рдХреА рд╕рдВрднрд╛рд╡рдирд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг, рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рд╡рд╕рд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд╕ рдХреЗ рдЕрд╡рд╕рд░реЛрдВ рддрдХ рдкрд╣реБрдВрдЪрдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИред рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рд░рдВрддрд░ рд╕реАрдЦрдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд╕ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рдХреМрд╢рд▓-рдирд┐рд░реНрдорд╛рдг рдкрд╣рд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдирд┐рд╡реЗрд╢ рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдПред
9. рдЧреЛрдкрдиреАрдпрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рдЧрд░рд┐рдорд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдЧреЛрдкрдиреАрдпрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рдЧрд░рд┐рдорд╛ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рдирд┐рдЧрд░рд╛рдиреА, тАЛтАЛрдирд┐рдЧрд░рд╛рдиреА рдпрд╛ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рдорд╛рдорд▓реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдШреБрд╕рдкреИрда рдХреЗ рдЦрд┐рд▓рд╛рдл рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИред рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреА рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рдЬрд╛рдирдХрд╛рд░реА рдХреА рдЧреЛрдкрдиреАрдпрддрд╛ рдХрд╛ рд╕рдореНрдорд╛рди рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдП рдФрд░ рдпрд╣ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдЪрд╛рд╣рд┐рдП рдХрд┐ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдХреА рдиреАрддрд┐рдпрд╛рдВ рдФрд░ рдкреНрд░рдерд╛рдПрдВ рдЙрдирдХреА рдЧрд░рд┐рдорд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рдпрддреНрддрддрд╛ рдХреЛ рдмрд░рдХрд░рд╛рд░ рд░рдЦреЗрдВред
рдпреЗ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдХреБрдЫ рдЙрджрд╛рд╣рд░рдг рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рдирд┐рд╖реНрдкрдХреНрд╖, рд╕рдореНрдорд╛рдирдЬрдирдХ рдФрд░ рдЯрд┐рдХрд╛рдК рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдз рдмрдирд╛рдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдпреЛрдЧрджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рд╕рд╛рдордВрдЬрд╕реНрдпрдкреВрд░реНрдг рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рд╡рд╛рддрд╛рд╡рд░рдг рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╕рднреА рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рдФрд░ рдЖрд░реНрдерд┐рдХ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдп рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЗрди рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд╛рдпрдо рд░рдЦрдирд╛ рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИред

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдЕрд▓рдЧ-рдЕрд▓рдЧ рджреЗрд╢реЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдХреНрд╖реЗрддреНрд░реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдЕрд▓рдЧ-рдЕрд▓рдЧ рд╣реИрдВ, рд▓реЗрдХрд┐рди рдЖрдо рддреМрд░ рдкрд░ рдЙрдирдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╣рд╛рд░, рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕рдореНрдорд╛рди рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдбрд┐рдЬрд╝рд╛рдЗрди рдХрд┐рдП рдЧрдП рдХрдИ рдирд┐рдпрдо рдФрд░ рдХрд╝рд╛рдиреВрди рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред рдпрд╣рд╛рдВ рдХреБрдЫ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдиреНрдп рдкреНрд░рдХрд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛рдПрдВ рджреА рдЧрдИ рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рддреА рд╣реИрдВ:
1. рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдХрд╛рдиреВрди: рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рдкреНрд░рддрд┐ рдШрдВрдЯрд╛ рдпрд╛ рдорд╛рд╕рд┐рдХ рд╡реЗрддрди рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рджреЗрдирд╛ рд╣реЛрдЧрд╛ред рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд╢реЛрд╖рдг рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдирд╛ рдФрд░ рдпрд╣ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдФрд░ рд░рд╣рдиреЗ рдпреЛрдЧреНрдп рд╡реЗрддрди рдорд┐рд▓реЗред
2. рд╢реНрд░рдо рдорд╛рдирдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо: рд╢реНрд░рдо рдорд╛рдирдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдкрд╣рд▓реБрдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдирд┐рдпрдореЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рд░реНрдзрд╛рд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рдо рдХреЗ рдШрдВрдЯреЗ, рдУрд╡рд░рдЯрд╛рдЗрдо рд╡реЗрддрди, рдЖрд░рд╛рдо рдХреА рдЕрд╡рдзрд┐ рдФрд░ рднреЛрдЬрди рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢ рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдХрд┐ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рдкреНрд░рддрд┐ рджрд┐рди рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрддрдо рдХрд┐рддрдиреЗ рдШрдВрдЯреЗ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ l рдорд╛рдирдХ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╕рдкреНрддрд╛рд╣ рд╕реЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд┐рдП рдЧрдП рдШрдВрдЯреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рдкреНрддрд╛рд╣ рдФрд░ рдЕрдзрд┐рджреЗрд╢ рдУрд╡рд░рдЯрд╛рдЗрдо рднреБрдЧрддрд╛рдиред
3. рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо: рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЕрдирд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реНрдп рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдХрд┐ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛ рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рдФрд░ рд╕реНрд╡рд╕реНрде рдХрд╛рд░реНрдп рд╡рд╛рддрд╛рд╡рд░рдг рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░реЗрдВред рдЗрди рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдореЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдирд┐рд░реАрдХреНрд╖рдг, рдЬреЛрдЦрд┐рдо рдореВрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдВрдХрди, рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг, рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдЙрдкрдХрд░рдг рдХрд╛ рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдФрд░ рджреБрд░реНрдШрдЯрдирд╛рдУрдВ рдФрд░ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рд╡рд╕рд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдмреАрдорд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рдЙрдкрд╛рдп рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реЛ рд╕рдХрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред
4. рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡-рд╡рд┐рд░реЛрдзреА рдХрд╛рдиреВрди: рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡-рд╡рд┐рд░реЛрдзреА рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдирд╕реНрд▓, рдЬрд╛рддреАрдпрддрд╛, рд▓рд┐рдВрдЧ, рдзрд░реНрдо, рдЖрдпреБ, рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓рд╛рдВрдЧрддрд╛, рдпрд╛ рдпреМрди рдЕрднрд┐рд╡рд┐рдиреНрдпрд╛рд╕ рдЬреИрд╕реА рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖рддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░ рдкрд░ рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рдореЗрдВ рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рдкрд░ рд░реЛрдХ рд▓рдЧрд╛рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдХрд┐ рд╕рднреА рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреА рдкреГрд╖реНрдарднреВрдорд┐ рдпрд╛ рдкрд╣рдЪрд╛рди рдХреА рдкрд░рд╡рд╛рд╣ рдХрд┐рдП рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рдирд┐рдпреБрдХреНрддрд┐, рдкрджреЛрдиреНрдирддрд┐, рдкреНрд░рд╢рд┐рдХреНрд╖рдг рдФрд░ рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬреЗ рдХреЗ рд╕рдорд╛рди рдЕрд╡рд╕рд░ рдорд┐рд▓реЗред
5. рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди: рд░реЛрдЬрдЧрд╛рд░ рд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрдмрд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдРрддрд┐рд╣рд╛рд╕рд┐рдХ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ рд╣рд╛рд╢рд┐рдП рдкрд░ рд░рд╣рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╕рдореВрд╣реЛрдВ, рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдорд╣рд┐рд▓рд╛рдУрдВ, рдирд╕реНрд▓реАрдп рдЕрд▓реНрдкрд╕рдВрдЦреНрдпрдХреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓рд╛рдВрдЧ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рдорд╛рди рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рдирд┐рдзрд┐рддреНрд╡ рдФрд░ рдЕрд╡рд╕рд░реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдЗрди рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдХрд╛рд░рдг рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпреБрдХреНрддрд┐, рдкрджреЛрдиреНрдирддрд┐ рдФрд░ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рдзрд╛рд░рдг рдореЗрдВ рдЕрд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рджреВрд░ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рдХрд╛рд░рд╛рддреНрдордХ рдХрд╛рд░реНрд░рд╡рд╛рдИ рдЙрдкрд╛рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд▓рд╛рдЧреВ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХрддрд╛ рд╣реЛ рд╕рдХрддреА рд╣реИред
6. рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдФрд░ рд╕рдВрдШ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░: рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдФрд░ рд╕рдВрдШ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрдЧрдард┐рдд рд╣реЛрдиреЗ, рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рд╕рдВрдШ рдмрдирд╛рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рде рд╡реЗрддрди, рд▓рд╛рдн рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рдордХрд╛рдЬреА рдкрд░рд┐рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдкрд░ рдмрд╛рддрдЪреАрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдореЗрдВ рд╕рдВрд▓рдЧреНрди рд╣реЛрдиреЗ рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рджреЗрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╢реЛрдз рдХреЗ рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╣рдбрд╝рддрд╛рд▓ рдХрд░рдиреЗ, рдзрд░рдирд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдФрд░ рд╕рдВрдШ рдХреА рдЧрддрд┐рд╡рд┐рдзрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рднрд╛рдЧ рд▓реЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред
7. рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди: рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдЙрди рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╡рд┐рддреНрддреАрдп рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╛ рдФрд░ рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рд▓рд╛рдн рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рдкреНрд░рдгрд╛рд▓реА рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рдХрд╛рдо рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдЪреЛрдЯреЛрдВ рдпрд╛ рдмреАрдорд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдкреАрдбрд╝рд┐рдд рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдХрд┐ рдШрд╛рдпрд▓ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреА рдЪреЛрдЯреЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдЙрдмрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рджреМрд░рд╛рди рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рдЙрдкрдЪрд╛рд░ рдФрд░ рдЖрдп рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрди рдкреНрд░рд╛рдкреНрдд рд╣реЛред
8. рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░рд┐рдХ рдФрд░ рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди: рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░рд┐рдХ рдФрд░ рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдмрдЪреНрдЪреЗ рдХреЗ рдЬрдиреНрдо, рдЧреЛрдж рд▓реЗрдиреЗ, рдмреАрдорд╛рд░ рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░ рдХреЗ рд╕рджрд╕реНрдп рдХреА рджреЗрдЦрднрд╛рд▓, рдпрд╛ рд╡реНрдпрдХреНрддрд┐рдЧрдд рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐ рд╕реЗ рдирд┐рдкрдЯрдиреЗ рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдХрд╛рд░рдгреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдХрд╛рдо рд╕реЗ рдЕрд╡реИрддрдирд┐рдХ рдЫреБрдЯреНрдЯреА рд▓реЗрдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рджреЗрддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдиреМрдХрд░реА рдЫреВрдЯрдиреЗ рдпрд╛ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╢реЛрдз рд╕реЗ рддрдм рдмрдЪрд╛рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдЬрдм рдЙрдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░рд┐рдХ рдпрд╛ рдЪрд┐рдХрд┐рддреНрд╕рд╛ рдХрд╛рд░рдгреЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдЫреБрдЯреНрдЯреА рдХреА рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХрддрд╛ рд╣реЛрддреА рд╣реИред
9. рд╡реНрд╣рд┐рд╕рд┐рд▓рдмреНрд▓реЛрдЕрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛: рд╡реНрд╣рд┐рд╕рд┐рд▓рдмреНрд▓реЛрдЕрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдЙрди рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдЕрд╡реИрдз рдпрд╛ рдЕрдиреИрддрд┐рдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╣рд╛рд░ рдХреА рд░рд┐рдкреЛрд░реНрдЯ рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдФрд░ рдЙрдиреНрд╣реЗрдВ рдЕрдкрдиреЗ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рджреНрд╡рд╛рд░рд╛ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╢реЛрдз рд╕реЗ рдмрдЪрд╛рдпрд╛ рдЬрд╛рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпреЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╢реЛрдз рдХреЗ рдбрд░ рдХреЗ рдмрд┐рдирд╛ рдЧрд▓рдд рдХрд╛рдо рдХреЗ рдмрд╛рд░реЗ рдореЗрдВ рдмреЛрд▓рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдкреНрд░реЛрддреНрд╕рд╛рд╣рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдИрдорд╛рдирджрд╛рд░реА рдФрд░ рдЬрд╡рд╛рдмрджреЗрд╣реА рдмрдирд╛рдП рд░рдЦрдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдорджрдж рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред

рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рднрд╛рд░рддреАрдп рдХрд╛рдиреВрди

рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рдПрдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рдкрдХ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рдврд╛рдВрдЪреЗ рджреНрд╡рд╛рд░рд╛ рд╕рдВрд░рдХреНрд╖рд┐рдд рд╣реИрдВ рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдХрд╝рд╛рдиреВрди, рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдФрд░ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдирд┐рд░реНрдгрдп рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред рдиреАрдЪреЗ рдХреБрдЫ рдкреНрд░рдореБрдЦ рднрд╛рд░рддреАрдп рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╣реИрдВ рдЬреЛ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ:
1. рднрд╛рд░рдд рдХрд╛ рд╕рдВрд╡рд┐рдзрд╛рди: рднрд╛рд░рддреАрдп рд╕рдВрд╡рд┐рдзрд╛рди рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рдореМрд▓рд┐рдХ рдврд╛рдВрдЪрд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рдХреЗ рд╕рдордХреНрд╖ рд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ (рдЕрдиреБрдЪреНрдЫреЗрдж 14), рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рдХрд╛ рдирд┐рд╖реЗрдз (рдЕрдиреБрдЪреНрдЫреЗрдж 15), рд╕рдВрдШ рдХреА рд╕реНрд╡рддрдВрддреНрд░рддрд╛ (рдЕрдиреБрдЪреНрдЫреЗрдж 19), рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХрд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ (рдЕрдиреБрдЪреНрдЫреЗрдж 41) рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред
2. рдХрд╛рд░рдЦрд╛рдирд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1948: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХрд╛рд░рдЦрд╛рдиреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп, рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛, рдХрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдг, рдХрд╛рдо рдХреЗ рдШрдВрдЯреЗ рдФрд░ рдЫреБрдЯреНрдЯреА рдХреЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рд╢рд╛рдорд┐рд▓ рд╣реИрдВред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рдХрд╛рд░рдЦрд╛рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдФрд░ рдХрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдг рдХреЛ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рдФрд░ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рд╡рд╕рд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдЦрддрд░реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдирд╛ рд╣реИред
3. рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1948: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдирд┐рд░реНрдзрд╛рд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдЬреЛ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдЙрджреНрдпреЛрдЧреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╕рд╛рдпреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рджреЗрдирд╛ рд╣реЛрдЧрд╛ред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд╢реЛрд╖рдг рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдирд╛ рдФрд░ рдпрд╣ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИ рдХрд┐ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдореБрдЖрд╡рдЬрд╛ рдорд┐рд▓реЗред
4. рд╡реЗрддрди рднреБрдЧрддрд╛рди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1936: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╡реЗрддрди рдХреЗ рднреБрдЧрддрд╛рди рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рд╕рдордп рдкрд░ рднреБрдЧрддрд╛рди, рдХрдЯреМрддреА рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдорд╛рдорд▓реЛрдВ рдХрд╛ рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЕрдирдзрд┐рдХреГрдд рдХрдЯреМрддреА рд╕реЗ рдмрдЪрд╛рдирд╛ рдФрд░ рд╡реЗрддрди рдХрд╛ рд╢реАрдШреНрд░ рд╡рд┐рддрд░рдг рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИред
5. рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рднрд╡рд┐рд╖реНрдп рдирд┐рдзрд┐ рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд┐рдз рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1952: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХреБрдЫ рдЙрджреНрдпреЛрдЧреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рднрд╡рд┐рд╖реНрдп рдирд┐рдзрд┐ рдпреЛрдЬрдирд╛ рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рднрд╡рд┐рд╖реНрдп рдирд┐рдзрд┐, рдкреЗрдВрд╢рди рдирд┐рдзрд┐ рдФрд░ рдмреАрдорд╛ рдпреЛрдЬрдирд╛рдУрдВ рд╕реЗ рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдпреЛрдЧрджрд╛рди, рдирд┐рдХрд╛рд╕реА рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд▓рд╛рдн рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред
6. рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рд░рд╛рдЬреНрдп рдмреАрдорд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1948: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдХрд╛рд░рдЦрд╛рдиреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдХреБрдЫ рдЕрдиреНрдп рдкреНрд░рддрд┐рд╖реНрдард╛рдиреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдмреАрдорд╛ рд▓рд╛рдн рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдмреАрдорд╛рд░реА, рдЪреЛрдЯ рдпрд╛ рд╡рд┐рдХрд▓рд╛рдВрдЧрддрд╛ рд╕реЗ рдЙрддреНрдкрдиреНрди рд╣реЛрдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реА рд╡рд┐рддреНрддреАрдп рдХрдард┐рдирд╛рдЗрдпреЛрдВ рд╕реЗ рдмрдЪрд╛рдирд╛ рд╣реИред
7. рдФрджреНрдпреЛрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рдж рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1947: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдФрд░ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рдФрджреНрдпреЛрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рджреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕рдорд╛рдзрд╛рди рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд▓рд╣, рдордзреНрдпрд╕реНрдерддрд╛ рдФрд░ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрдирд┐рд░реНрдгрдпрди рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рддрдВрддреНрд░ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рдФрджреНрдпреЛрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╢рд╛рдВрддрд┐ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдирд╛ рдФрд░ рдЙрддреНрдкрд╛рджрди рдореЗрдВ рд╡реНрдпрд╡рдзрд╛рдиреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрдирд╛ рд╣реИред
8. рдЯреНрд░реЗрдб рдпреВрдирд┐рдпрди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1926: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ рдЯреНрд░реЗрдб рдпреВрдирд┐рдпрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдЧрдарди, рдкрдВрдЬреАрдХрд░рдг рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рдордХрд╛рдЬ рдХреЛ рдирд┐рдпрдВрддреНрд░рд┐рдд рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдпрд╣ рдЯреНрд░реЗрдб рдпреВрдирд┐рдпрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рдорд╛рдиреНрдпрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЕрдиреБрдорддрд┐ рджреЗрддрд╛ рд╣реИ l рдмреЗрд╣рддрд░ рд╡реЗрддрди, рдХрд╛рдордХрд╛рдЬреА рдкрд░рд┐рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд▓рд╛рднреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рдеред
9. рдорд╛рддреГрддреНрд╡ рд▓рд╛рдн рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1961: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдорд╣рд┐рд▓рд╛ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдорд╛рддреГрддреНрд╡ рдЕрд╡рдХрд╛рд╢, рдорд╛рддреГрддреНрд╡ рд▓рд╛рдн рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреНрдп рд╕рдВрдмрдВрдзрд┐рдд рдкреНрд░рд╛рд╡рдзрд╛рди рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрдмрд▓ рдореЗрдВ рдЧрд░реНрднрд╡рддреА рдФрд░ рд╕реНрддрдирдкрд╛рди рдХрд░рд╛рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реА рдорд╛рддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп рдФрд░ рдХрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдг рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИред
10. рд╕рдорд╛рди рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, 1976: рдпрд╣ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рд▓рд┐рдВрдЧ рдХреЗ рдЖрдзрд╛рд░ рдкрд░ рдордЬрджреВрд░реА рдореЗрдВ рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рдХреЛ рд░реЛрдХрддрд╛ рд╣реИ рдФрд░ рдирд┐рдпреЛрдХреНрддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рдорд╛рди рдХрд╛рдо рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рдорд╛рди рд╡реЗрддрди рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХрддрд╛ рджреЗрддрд╛ рд╣реИред рдЗрд╕рдХрд╛ рдЙрджреНрджреЗрд╢реНрдп рд▓реИрдВрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдирд╛ рдФрд░ рдкреБрд░реБрд╖реЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдорд╣рд┐рд▓рд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЗ рдмреАрдЪ рд╡реЗрддрди рдореЗрдВ рдЕрд╕рдорд╛рдирддрд╛рдУрдВ рдХреЛ рдЦрддреНрдо рдХрд░рдирд╛ рд╣реИред

рдирд┐рд╖реНрдХрд░реНрд╖

рдХрд┐рд╕реА рднреА рд╕рдорд╛рдЬ рдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рде рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рдФрд░ рд╕рдореНрдорд╛рдирдЬрдирдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╣рд╛рд░ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИред рднрд╛рд░рдд рдореЗрдВ, рд╡рд┐рднрд┐рдиреНрди рдХрд╝рд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ, рд╡рд┐рдирд┐рдпрдореЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд┐рдХ рдирд┐рд░реНрдгрдпреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдорд╛рдзреНрдпрдо рд╕реЗ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдПрдХ рд╡реНрдпрд╛рдкрдХ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рдврд╛рдВрдЪрд╛ рдореМрдЬреВрдж рд╣реИред
рдлрд╝реИрдХреНрдЯрд░реА рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо, рдиреНрдпреВрдирддрдо рд╡реЗрддрди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдФрд░ рдФрджреНрдпреЛрдЧрд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рдж рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдкреНрд░рдореБрдЦ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рд╕реНрд╡рд╛рд╕реНрдереНрдп, рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдФрд░ рдХрд▓реНрдпрд╛рдг рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдкрд░ рдзреНрдпрд╛рди рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд╕рд╛рде рдХрд╛рдо рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдХреА рд╕реНрдерд┐рддрд┐, рд╡реЗрддрди рдФрд░ рд╡рд┐рд╡рд╛рдж рд╕рдорд╛рдзрд╛рди рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдорд╛рдирдХ рд╕реНрдерд╛рдкрд┐рдд рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рднрд╡рд┐рд╖реНрдп рдирд┐рдзрд┐ рдФрд░ рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░реА рд░рд╛рдЬреНрдп рдмреАрдорд╛ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдореЛрдВ рдХреЗ рддрд╣рдд рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд┐рдП рдЧрдП рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдЙрдкрд╛рдп рдмреАрдорд╛рд░реА, рдЪреЛрдЯ рдпрд╛ рд╕реЗрд╡рд╛рдирд┐рд╡реГрддреНрддрд┐ рдХреЗ рд╕рдордп рдХрд░реНрдордЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдпреЛрдВ рдФрд░ рдЙрдирдХреЗ рдкрд░рд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╡рд┐рддреНрддреАрдп рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдкреНрд░рджрд╛рди рдХрд░рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВред
рдЗрд╕рдХреЗ рдЕрд▓рд╛рд╡рд╛, рдЯреНрд░реЗрдб рдпреВрдирд┐рдпрди рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдФрд░ рд╕рдорд╛рди рдкрд╛рд░рд┐рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХ рдЕрдзрд┐рдирд┐рдпрдо рдЬреИрд╕реЗ рдХрд╛рдиреВрди рд╢реНрд░рдорд┐рдХреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рд╕рдВрдЧрдард┐рдд рд╣реЛрдиреЗ, рд╕рд╛рдореВрд╣рд┐рдХ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ рд╕реМрджреЗрдмрд╛рдЬреА рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╕реНрдерд▓ рдореЗрдВ рднреЗрджрднрд╛рд╡ рд╕реЗ рдирд┐рдкрдЯрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рд╕рд╢рдХреНрдд рдмрдирд╛рддреЗ рд╣реИрдВ, рдЬрд┐рд╕рд╕реЗ рдЕрдзрд┐рдХ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдпрд╕рдВрдЧрдд рдФрд░ рдЙрдЪрд┐рдд рд╢реНрд░рдо рд╡рд╛рддрд╛рд╡рд░рдг рдореЗрдВ рдпреЛрдЧрджрд╛рди рдорд┐рд▓рддрд╛ рд╣реИред
рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд╕реБрд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдореЗрдВ рдорд╣рддреНрд╡рдкреВрд░реНрдг рдкреНрд░рдЧрддрд┐ рдХреЗ рдмрд╛рд╡рдЬреВрдж, рд╡рд┐рд╢реЗрд╖ рд░реВрдк рд╕реЗ рдЕрдиреМрдкрдЪрд╛рд░рд┐рдХ рдХреНрд╖реЗрддреНрд░реЛрдВ рдФрд░ рд╣рд╛рд╢рд┐рдП рдкрд░ рд░рд╣рдиреЗ рд╡рд╛рд▓реЗ рд╕рдореБрджрд╛рдпреЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рдЗрди рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдкреНрд░рднрд╛рд╡реА рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╛рдиреНрд╡рдпрди, рдХрд╛рд░реНрдпрд╛рдиреНрд╡рдпрди рдФрд░ рдЕрдиреБрдкрд╛рд▓рди рдХреЛ рд╕реБрдирд┐рд╢реНрдЪрд┐рдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ рдореЗрдВ рдЪреБрдиреМрддрд┐рдпрд╛рдБ рдмрдиреА рд╣реБрдИ рд╣реИрдВред рд╢реНрд░рдо рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдордЬрдмреВрдд рдХрд░рдиреЗ, рдкреНрд░рд╡рд░реНрддрди рддрдВрддреНрд░ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рдиреЗ рдФрд░ рдЕрд░реНрдерд╡реНрдпрд╡рд╕реНрдерд╛ рдХреЗ рд╕рднреА рдХреНрд╖реЗрддреНрд░реЛрдВ рдореЗрдВ рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░ рд╕рд┐рджреНрдзрд╛рдВрддреЛрдВ рдХреЗ рдкреНрд░рддрд┐ рдЬрд╛рдЧрд░реВрдХрддрд╛ рдФрд░ рдкрд╛рд▓рди рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рдкреНрд░рдпрд╛рд╕реЛрдВ рдХреЛ рдЬрд╛рд░реА рд░рдЦрдирд╛ рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИред
рдирд┐рд╖реНрдХрд░реНрд╖рддрдГ, рд╢реНрд░рдо рдЕрдзрд┐рдХрд╛рд░реЛрдВ рдХреА рд░рдХреНрд╖рд╛ рдХрд░рдирд╛ рди рдХреЗрд╡рд▓ рдПрдХ рдХрд╛рдиреВрдиреА рджрд╛рдпрд┐рддреНрд╡ рд╣реИ, рдмрд▓реНрдХрд┐ рдПрдХ рдиреИрддрд┐рдХ рдЕрдирд┐рд╡рд╛рд░реНрдпрддрд╛ рднреА рд╣реИ, рдЬреЛ рднрд╛рд░рдд рдФрд░ рдЙрд╕рдХреЗ рдмрд╛рд╣рд░ рд╕рд╛рдорд╛рдЬрд┐рдХ рдиреНрдпрд╛рдп, рдЖрд░реНрдерд┐рдХ рд╡рд┐рдХрд╛рд╕ рдФрд░ рдорд╛рдирд╡реАрдп рдЧрд░рд┐рдорд╛ рдХреЛ рдмрдврд╝рд╛рд╡рд╛ рджреЗрдиреЗ рдХреЗ рд▓рд┐рдП рдЖрд╡рд╢реНрдпрдХ рд╣реИред

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